Thursday, November 15, 2012 - Litany Lane Blog:
Ethics, Philemon 1:7-20, Psalms 146:7-10, Luke 17:20-25, St Albert the Great, Bavaria
Good Day Bloggers! Ethics, Philemon 1:7-20, Psalms 146:7-10, Luke 17:20-25, St Albert the Great, Bavaria
Wishing everyone a Blessed Week!
Year of Faith - October 11, 2012 - November 24, 2013
P.U.S.H. (Pray Until Serenity Happens). It has a remarkable way of producing solace, peace, patience and tranquility and of course resolution...God's always available 24/7.
We are all human. We all experience birth, life and death. We all have
flaws but we also all have the gift knowledge and free will as well,
make the most of it. Life on earth is a stepping to our eternal home in
Heaven. Its your choice whether to rise towards eternal light or lost to
eternal darkness. Material items, though needed for sustenance and
survival on earth are of earthly value only. The only thing that passes
from this earth to Purgatory and/or Heaven is our Soul, our Spirit...it's God's perpetual
gift to us...Embrace it, treasure it, nurture it, protect it...
"Raise not a hand to another unless it is to offer in peace and goodwill." ~ Zarya Parx 2012
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November 02, 2012 Message From Our Lady of Medjugorje to World:
"Dear children, as a mother I implore you to persevere as my apostles. I am praying to my Son to give you Divine wisdom and strength. I am praying that you may discern everything around you according to God’s truth and to strongly resist everything that wants to distance you from my Son. I am praying that you may witness the love of the Heavenly Father according to my Son. My children, great grace has been given to you to be witnesses of God’s love. Do not take the given responsibility lightly. Do not sadden my motherly heart. As a mother I desire to rely on my children, on my apostles. Through fasting and prayer you are opening the way for me to pray to my Son for Him to be beside you and for His name to be holy through you. Pray for the shepherds because none of this would be possible without them. Thank you."
October 25, 2012 Message From Our Lady of Medjugorje to World:
"Dear children! Today I call you to pray for my intentions. Renew fasting and prayer because Satan is cunning and attracts many hearts to sin and perdition. I call you, little children, to holiness and to live in grace. Adore my Son so that He may fill you with His peace and love for which you yearn. Thank you for having responded to my call." ~ Blessed Virgin Mary
October 02, 2012 Message From Our Lady of Medjugorje to World:
"Dear children; I am calling you and am coming among you because I need you. I need apostles with a pure heart. I am praying, and you should also pray, that the Holy Spirit may enable and lead you, that He may illuminate you and fill you with love and humility. Pray that He may fill you with grace and mercy. Only then will you understand me, my children. Only then will you understand my pain because of those who have not come to know the love of God. Then you will be able to help me. You will be my light-bearers of God’s love. You will illuminate the way for those who have been given eyes but do not want to see. I desire for all of my children to see my Son. I desire for all of my children to experience His Kingdom. Again I call you and implore you to pray for those whom my Son has called. Thank you." ~ Blessed Virgin Mary
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Today's Word: ethics eth·ics [eth-iks]
Origin: 1400–50; late Middle English ethic + -s3 , modeled on Greek tà ēthiká, neuter plural
plural noun
1. ( used with a singular or plural verb ) a system of moral principles: the ethics of a culture.
2. the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc.: medical ethics; Christian ethics.
3. moral principles, as of an individual: His ethics forbade betrayal of a confidence.
4. ( usually used with a singular verb ) that branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions.
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Today's Old Testament Reading - Psalms 146:7-10
7 gives justice to the oppressed, gives food to the hungry; Yahweh sets prisoners free.8 Yahweh gives sight to the blind, lifts up those who are bowed down.
9 Yahweh protects the stranger, he sustains the orphan and the widow. Yahweh loves the upright,but he frustrates the wicked.
10 Yahweh reigns for ever, your God, Zion, from age to age.
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Today's Epistle - Philemon 1:7-20
7 I have received much joy and encouragement by your love; you have set the hearts of God's holy people at rest.8 Therefore, although in Christ I have no hesitations about telling you what your duty is,
9 I am rather appealing to your love, being what I am, Paul, an old man, and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus.
10 I am appealing to you for a child of mine, whose father I became while wearing these chains: I mean Onesimus.
11 He was of no use to you before, but now he is useful both to you and to me.
12 I am sending him back to you -- that is to say, sending you my own heart.
13 I should have liked to keep him with me; he could have been a substitute for you, to help me while I am in the chains that the gospel has brought me.
14 However, I did not want to do anything without your consent; it would have been forcing your act of kindness, which should be spontaneous.
15 I suppose you have been deprived of Onesimus for a time, merely so that you could have him back for ever,
16 no longer as a slave, but something much better than a slave, a dear brother; especially dear to me, but how much more to you, both on the natural plane and in the Lord.
17 So if you grant me any fellowship with yourself, welcome him as you would me;
18 if he has wronged you in any way or owes you anything, put it down to my account.
19 I am writing this in my own hand: I, Paul, shall pay it back -- I make no mention of a further debt, that you owe your very self to me!
20 Well then, brother, I am counting on you, in the Lord; set my heart at rest, in Christ.
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Today's Gospel Reading - Luke 17:20-25
Asked by the Pharisees when the
kingdom of God was to come, Jesus gave them this answer, 'The coming of
the kingdom of God does not admit of observation and there will be no
one to say, "Look, it is here! Look, it is there!" For look, the kingdom
of God is among you.' He said to the disciples, 'A time will come when you will long to see one of the days of the Son of man and will not see it. They
will say to you, "Look, it is there!" or, "Look, it is here!" Make no
move; do not set off in pursuit; for as the lightning flashing from one
part of heaven lights up the other, so will be the Son of man when his
Day comes. But first he is destined to suffer grievously and be rejected
by this generation.
Reflection
• Today’s Gospel gives us the
discussion between Jesus and the Pharisees on the coming of the Kingdom.
The Gospel today and that of the following days deal with the coming of
the end of time.
• Luke 17, 20-21: The Kingdom is among you. “Asked when the Kingdom of God was to come?” Jesus answered: “The coming of the Kingdom of God does not admit of observation and there will be no one to say, ‘Look, it is here! Look, it is there! For look, the Kingdom of God is among you!” The Pharisees thought that the Kingdom could come only after people would have reached the perfect observance of the Law of God. For them, the coming of the Kingdom would be the reward of God for the good behaviour of people, and the Messiah would have come in a very solemn way as a king, received by his people. Jesus says the contrary. The coming of the Kingdom cannot be observed as the coming of an earthly king is observed. For Jesus, the Kingdom of God has already come! It is already among us, independently of our effort or merit. Jesus sees things in a different way. He has another way of reading life. He prefers the Samaritan who lives with gratitude to the nine who think that they merit the good that they receive from God (Lk 17, 17-19).
• Luke 17, 22-24: The signs to recognize the coming of the Son of Man. “A time will come when you will long to see one of the days of the Son of Man and will not see it. They will say to you, ‘Look it is there! or Look, it is here!’ Make no move, do not set off in pursuit; for as the lightening flashing from one part of heaven lights up the other, so will be the Son of Man when his Day comes”. In this affirmation of Jesus there are elements that are taken from the apocalyptic vision of history, quite common in the first centuries and after Jesus. The apocalyptic vision of history has the following characteristic: in the time of great persecutions and of oppression, the poor have the impression that God loses control of history. They feel lost, without a horizon and without any hope of liberation. In those moments of apparent absence of God, prophecy assumes the form of apocalypse. The apocalyptic, seek to enlighten the desperate situation with the light of faith to help the people not to lose hope and to continue to have courage on the way. To show that God does not lose control of history, they describe the different stages of the realization of the project of God through history. Begun in a determinate significant moment in the past, this project of God advances, stage after stage, through the situations lived by the poor, until the final victory is obtained at the end of history. In this way, the apocalyptic place the present moment like a stage which has already been foreseen in the overall project of God. Generally, the last stage, before the coming of the end is represented like a moment of suffering and of crisis, of which many have tried to profit to deceive people saying: “They will tell you: Look it is here, or look it is there; do not move, do not follow them. Because like lightening flashing from one part of heaven lights up the other, so will be the Son of man when his Day comes”. Having the eyes of faith which Jesus communicates, the poor can perceive that the Kingdom is already among them (Lk 17, 21), like lightening, without any doubt. The coming of the Kingdom brings with it its own evidence and does not depend on the forecast or prediction of others.
• Luke 17, 25: By the Cross up to the Glory. “But first he is destined to suffer grievously and be rejected by this generation”. Always the same warning: the Cross, scandal for the Jews and foolishness for the Greek, but for us the expression of the wisdom and the power of God (1Co 1, 18.23). The path toward the glory passes through the Cross. The life of Jesus is our canon, it is the canonical norm for all of us.
Personal questions
• Jesus said: “The Kingdom is in your
midst!” Have you already found some sign of the Kingdom in your life, in
the life of your nation or in the life of your community?
• The cross in our life. Suffering. How do you consider or see suffering? What do you do about it?
• The cross in our life. Suffering. How do you consider or see suffering? What do you do about it?
Reference: Courtesy of Order of Carmelites, www.ocarm.org.
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Featured Item of the Day from Litany Lane
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Saint of the Day: Saint Albert the Great
Feast Day: November 15
Patron Saint: Scientists
Bust of Albertus Magnus by Vincenzo Onofri, c. 1493
Albertus was born sometime before 1200 in Lauingen in Bavaria. Contemporaries such as Roger Bacon applied the term "Magnus" to Albertus during his own lifetime, referring to his immense reputation as a scholar and philosopher. Albertus was educated principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1229) he became a member of the Dominican Order, against the wishes of his family, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg and Hildesheim. In 1245 he went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time as a master of theology with great success. During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus.
Albertus was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would bring him in the heart of academic debate. He was ahead of his time in his attitude towards science. Two aspects of this attitude deserve to be mentioned: 1) he did not only study science from books, as other academics did in his day, but actually observed and experimented with nature (the rumours starting by those who did not understand this are probably at the source of Albert's supposed connections with alchemy and witchcraft), 2) he took from Aristotle the view that scientific method had to be appropriate to the objects of the scientific discipline at hand (in discussions with Roger Bacon, who, like many 20th century academics, thought that all science should be based on mathematics).
In 1254 Albertus was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on St John, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Arabian philosopher Averroes.
In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him Bishop of Regensburg, an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse—in accord with the dictates of the Dominican order—instead walking back and forth across his huge diocese. This earned him the affectionate sobriquet, "boots the bishop," from his parishioners. After his stint as bishop, he spent the remainder of his life partly in retirement in the various houses of his order, yet often preaching throughout southern Germany. In 1270 he preached the eighth Crusade in Austria. After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties (In Cologne he is not only known for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for "the big verdict" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albertus (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).
Roman sarcophagus containing the relics of Albertus Magnus in the crypt of St. Andreas church in Cologne, Germany
Albertus was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on December 16, 1931 by Pope Pius XI and patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St Albert's feast day is celebrated on November 15. According to Joan Carroll Cruz, his body is incorrupt.
Writings
Albertus Magnus monument at the University of Cologne.
Albertus' activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master.
His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.
Natural philosopher
Painting by Joos (Justus) van Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475
In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albertus as an alchemist and magician. On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to Alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, De mineralibus, he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be. A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include Metals and Materials; the Secrets of Chemistry; the Origin of Metals; the Origins of Compounds, and a Concordance which is a collection of Observations on the philosopher's stone; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of Theatrum Chemicum. He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate. He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work De mineralibus. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.
According to legend, Albertus Magnus is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Magnus does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation." Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albertus Magnus' death, this legend as stated is unlikely.
However, it is true that Albertus was deeply interested in astrology, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli.[12] In the high Middle Ages — and well into the early modern period — few intellectuals, if any, questioned the basic assumptions of astrology: humans live within a web of celestial influences that affect our bodies, and thereby motivate us to behave in certain ways. Within this worldview, it was reasonable to believe that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albertus made this a central component of his philosophical system, arguing that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts. The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work he authored around 1260, now known as the Speculum astronomiae. However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early Summa de bono to his last work, the Summa theologiae.
Music
Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics. He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.Cultural references
Iconography inspired by writings of Albertus Magnus
In The Concept of Anxiety Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert Magnus, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites G. O. Marbach who he quotes as saying "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus" [Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass]. In 1968, he was cited by William F. Buckley as one of several historical figures whose best qualities would be emulated by the ideal President. The typeface Albertus is named in his memory.
In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Albertus Magnus is referred to as one of Victor Frankenstein's chosen readings. He is also referred to in Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Birth-mark and Herman Melville's The Bell Tower. In Robert Heinlein's novel Glory Road, the hero, Scar Gordon, reads a book of magic by Albertus Magnus and comments on love magic involving a wolf's burned hair. In Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels, the character of Alberto Mallich (founder of the Unseen University and later Death's manservant Albert) is a sly nod to Albertus Magnus in his more legendary and esoteric guise. Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s novel A Canticle for Leibowitz centers on a monastic order called the Albertian Order of Leibowitz, named by its founder after Albertus Magnus and dedicated to preserving scientific knowledge lost after a nuclear war.
Influence and tribute
A number of schools have been named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia, New York, Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River Forest, Illinois, and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut. The main science building at Providence College is named in honor of Albertus Magnus. The main science building at Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, is also named after Albertus Magnus.The Academy for Science and Design in New Hampshire honored Albertus by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.
As a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, the University of Houston Law Center displays a statute of Albertus Magnus. It is located on the campus of the University of Houston. The Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium is found in Regensburg, Germany.In Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.
In the Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at the University of Santo Tomas that houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor. The Saint Albert the Great Science Academy in San Carlos City, Pangasinan, which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008.
Due to his contributions to natural philosophy, the plant species Alberta magna and the asteroid 20006 Albertus Magnus were named after him.
References
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. Albertus Magnus". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
- Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-14-051312-4.
- Collins, David J. "Albertus, Magnus or Magus?: Magic, Natural Philosophy, and Religious Reform in the Late Middle Ages." Renaissance Quarterly 63, no. 1 (2010): 1–44.
- Miteva, Evelina. "The Soul between Body and Immortality: The 13th Century Debate on the Definition of the Human Rational Soul as Form and Substance", in: Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture, 1/2012. ISSN: 1314-5606
- Wallace, William A. (1970). "Albertus Magnus, Saint". In Gillispie, Charles. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. pp. 99–103. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
- Kennedy, D.J. (1913). "St. Albertus Magnus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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Today's Snippet I: Bavaria
The Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany,
located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of 70,548 square
kilometres (27,200 sq mi), it is the largest state by area, forming
almost 20% of the total land area of Germany. Bavaria is Germany's
second most populous state (after North Rhine-Westphalia),
with 12.5 million inhabitants, more than any of the three sovereign
nations on its borders. Bavaria's capital and largest city is Munich, the third largest city in Germany.
One of the oldest states of Europe, it was established as a duchy in the mid first millennium. In the 17th century, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, and Bavaria has since been a free state (republic). Modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia and Swabia.
History
The Bavarians emerged in a region north of the Alps, originally inhabited by the Gauls, which had been part of the Roman provinces of Raetia and Noricum. The Bavarians spoke Old High German
but, unlike other Germanic groups, probably did not migrate from
elsewhere. Rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left
behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may
have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, Heruli. The name "Bavarian" ("Baiuvarii") means "Men of Baia" which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources c. 520. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early-8th century. Bavaria was, for the most part, unaffected by the Protestant Reformation.
From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria, ending with Tassilo III who was deposed by Charlemagne. Three early dukes are named in Frankish sources: Garibald I may have been appointed to the office by the Merovingian kings and married the Lombard
princess Walderada when the church forbade her to King Chlothar I in
555. Their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in
northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out
with his Frankish overlords. Garibald's successor, Tassilo I, tried
unsuccessfully to hold the eastern frontier against the expansion of Slavs and Avars around 600. Tassilo's son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616.
After Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I,
whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited
churchmen from the west to organize churches and strengthen
Christianity in his duchy (it is unclear what Bavarian religious life
consisted of before this time). His son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom
in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand.
At Theodo's death the duchy was divided among his sons, but reunited
under his grandson Hucbert.
At Hucbert's death (735) the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo,
from neighbouring Alemannia (modern southwest Germany and northern
Switzerland). Odilo issued a law code for Bavaria, completed the process
of church organisation in partnership with St. Boniface (739), and
tried to intervene in Frankish succession disputes by fighting for the
claims of the Carolingian Grifo. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748.
Middle Ages
Tassilo III
(b. 741 - d. after 794) succeeded his father at the age of eight after
an unsuccessful attempt by Grifo to rule Bavaria. He initially ruled
under Frankish oversight but began to function independently from 763
onwards. He was particularly noted for founding new monasteries and for
expanding eastwards, fighting Slavs in the eastern Alps and along the River Danube
and colonising these lands. After 781, however, his cousin Charlemagne
began to pressure Tassilo to submit and finally deposed him in 788. The
deposition was not entirely legitimate. Dissenters attempted a coup
against Charlemagne at Tassilo's old capital of Regensburg in 792, led by his own son Pépin the Hunchback,
and the king had to drag Tassilo out of imprisonment to formally
renounce his rights and titles at the Assembly of Frankfurt in 794. This
is the last appearance of Tassilo in the sources and he probably died a
monk. As all of his family were also forced into monasteries, this was
the end of the Agilolfing dynasty.
For the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations. With the revolt of duke Henry the Quarrelsome
in 976, Bavaria lost large territories in the south and south east.
Among them a mark called "Ostarrichi" which was elevated to a duchy out
of own right and given to the Babenberger family. This event marks the
birth of Austria. The last, and one of the most important, of these
dukes was Henry the Lion of the house of Welf,
founder of Munich, de facto the second most powerful man in the empire
as the ruler of two duchies. When in 1180, Henry the Lion was deposed as
Duke of Saxony and Bavaria by his cousin, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (aka "Barbarossa" for his red beard), Bavaria was awarded as fief to the Wittelsbach family, counts palatinate of Schyren ("Scheyern" in modern German), which ruled from 1180 to 1918. The Electorate of the Palatinate by Rhine ("Kurpfalz" in German) was also acquired by the House of Wittelsbach in 1214.
The first of several divisions of the duchy of Bavaria occurred in 1255. With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen in 1268 also Swabian territories were acquired by the Wittelsbach dukes. Emperor Louis the Bavarian acquired Brandenburg, Tirol, Holland and Hainaut for his House but released the Upper Palatinate for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. In 1506 with the Landshut War of Succession the other parts of Bavaria were reunited and Munich became the sole capital.
17th and 18th centuries
In 1623 the Bavarian duke replaced his relative of the Palatinate branch, the Electorate of the Palatinate in the early days of the Thirty Years' War and acquired the powerful prince-electoral dignity in the Holy Roman Empire,
determining its Emperor thence forward, as well as special legal status
under the empire's laws. The country became one of the Jesuit supported
counter-reformation centers. During the early and mid-18th century the
ambitions of the Bavarian prince electors led to several wars with
Austria as well as occupations by Austria (Spanish succession, election
of a Wittelsbach emperor instead of a Habsburger). From 1777 onwards and
after the old Bavarian branch of the family had died out with elector Max III Joseph, Bavaria and the Electorate of the Palatinate were governed once again in personal union, now by the Palatinian lines.
Kingdom of Bavaria
When Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire, Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806, and its area doubled. Tirol was temporarily united, Salzburg temporarily reunited with Bavaria but finally ceded to Austria. In return the Rhenish Palatinate and Franconia were annexed to Bavaria in 1815. Between 1799 and 1817 the leading minister count Montgelas
followed a strict policy of modernisation and laid the foundations of
administrative structures that survived even the monarchy and are (in
their core) valid until today. In 1808 a first and in 1818 a more modern
constitution (by the standards of the time) was passed, that
established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords (Kammer der Reichsräte) and a House of Commons (Kammer der Abgeordneten). The constitution would last until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of World War I.
Bavaria as a part of the German Empire
After the rise of Prussia to prominence Bavaria managed to preserve its independence by playing off the rivalries of Prussia and Austria. Allied to Austria, it was defeated in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and did not belong to the North German Federation of 1867, but the question of German unity was still alive. When France attacked Prussia in 1870,
the south German states Baden, Württemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt and
Bavaria joined the Prussian forces and ultimately joined the Federation,
which was renamed Deutsches Reich (German Empire)
in 1871. Bavaria continued as a monarchy, and it even had some special
rights within the federation (such as an army, railways and a postal
service of its own).
In the early-20th century Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Henrik Ibsen, and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the Schwabing district of Munich, later devastated by World War II.
20th century
On November 12, 1918, Ludwig III signed a document, the Anif declaration, releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths; the newly-formed republican government of Socialist premier Kurt Eisner
interpreted this as an abdication. To date, however, no member of the
house of Wittelsbach has ever formally declared renunciation of the
throne. On the other hand, none has ever since officially called upon
their Bavarian or Stuart claims. Family members are active in cultural
and social life, including the head of the house, HRH Duke Franz in
Bavaria. They step back from any announcements on public affairs,
showing approval or disapproval solely by HRH's presence or absence.
Eisner was assassinated in February 1919 ultimately leading to a Communist revolt and the short-lived Bavarian Socialist Republic being proclaimed 6 April 1919. After violent suppression by elements of the German Army and notably the Freikorps, the Bavarian Socialist Republic fell in May 1919. The Bamberg Constitution (Bamberger Verfassung)
was enacted on 12 or 14 August 1919 and came into force on 15 September
1919 creating the Free State of Bavaria within the Weimar Republic.
Extremist activity further increased, notably the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch led by the National Socialists, and Munich and Nuremberg became Nazi strongholds under the Third Reich.
As a manufacturing center, Munich was heavily bombed during World War
II and occupied by U.S. troops. The Rhenish Palatinate was detached from
Bavaria in 1946 and made part of the new state Rhineland-Palatinate. During the Cold War, Bavaria was part of West Germany.
Since World War II, Bavaria has been rehabilitated from a poor
agrarian province into a prosperous industrial hub. A massive
reconstruction effort restored much of Munich's and other places
historic cores. The state capital hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics
and matches of the Football World Cups of 1974 and 2006 as well as
European Track & Field championships. More recently, former state
minister-president Edmund Stoiber was the CDU/CSU candidate for chancellor in the 2002 federal election which he lost, and native son Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger was elected Pope Benedict XVI in 2005.
Coat of arms
The modern coat of arms of Bavaria was designed by Eduard Ege in 1946, following heraldic traditions.
- The Golden Lion: At the dexter chief, sable, a lion rampant Or, armed and langued gules. This represents the administrative region of Upper Palatinate.
- The "Franconian Rake": At the sinister chief, per fess dancetty, gules and argent. This represents the administrative regions of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia.
- The Blue Panther: At the dexter base, argent, a panther rampant azure, armed Or and langued gules. This represents the regions of Lower and Upper Bavaria.
- The Three Lions: At the sinister base, Or, three lions passant guardant sable, armed and langued gules. This represents Swabia.
- The White-And-Blue inescutcheon: The inescutcheon of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen, adopted in 1247 by the Wittelsbachs House. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and these arms today symbolize Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms.
- The People's Crown: The coat of arms is surmounted by a crown with a golden band inset with precious stones and decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown first appeared in the coat of arms to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the royal crown was eschewed in 1923.
Geography
Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czech Republic as well as with Switzerland (across Lake Constance). Because all of these countries are part of the Schengen Area, the border is completely open. Neighbouring states within Germany are Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Thuringia and Saxony. Two major rivers flow through the state, the Danube (Donau) and the Main. The Bavarian Alps
define the border with Austria, (including the Austrian federal-states
of Vorarlberg, Tyrol and Salzburg) and within the range is the highest
peak in Germany, the Zugspitze. The Bavarian Forest and the Bohemian Forest form the vast majority of the frontier with the Czech Republic and Bohemia. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich (München), Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Augsburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Ingolstadt, Fürth and Erlangen.
German-Bavarian relations
The Bayernpartei
(Bavaria Party), which is not represented in parliament, advocates
Bavarian independence from Germany. Bavaria was the only state to reject
the West German constitution
in 1949, but this did not prevent the implementation of the
constitution it when it was ratified by the majority of the other German
states. One of Germany's principal political parties, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), is replaced in Bavaria by the Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU), but in practice the two parties cooperate fully in the Bundestag. Bavaria had its own border police force, separate from the Federal Border Guard, until Austria's EU accession in 1995.
Furthermore, the people from the three northern districts of Bavaria known as Franconia (Mittelfranken, Oberfranken and Unterfranken),
do not all consider themselves as Bavarian. They have their own history
and celebrate their own identity, which is distinct from southern
Bavaria, and symbolized by the Franconian rake (Fränkischer Rechen). The
flag is often seen during local festivals. Franconian nationalists
would also like to see their own Bundesland Franken "Federal State of
Franconia".
Economy
Bavaria has long had one of the largest and healthiest economies of any region in Germany, or Europe for that matter. Its GDP in 2007 exceeded 434 billion Euros (about 600 bn US$). This makes Bavaria itself one of the largest economies in Europe and only 17 countries in the world have higher GDP. Some large companies headquartered in Bavaria include BMW, Siemens, Rohde & Schwarz, Audi, Munich Re, Allianz, Infineon, MAN, Wacker Chemie, Puma, and Adidas.
Bavaria has a GDP per capita of over $48 000 US, meaning that if it
were its own independent country it would rank 7th or 8th in the world.
Company names
The motorcycle and automobile makers BMW (Bayerische Motoren-Werke, or Bavarian Motor Works) and Audi, Allianz, Grundig (consumer electronics), Siemens (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments), Continental (Automotive Tire and Electronics), Adidas, Puma, HypoVereinsbank (UniCredit Group), Infineon and Krauss-Maffei Wegmann have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base. Bavaria has also given its name to the largest Colombian brewery (Cervecería Bavaria) and a major Dutch brewery (Bavaria Bier).
Culture
Some features of the Bavarian culture and mentality are remarkably
distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in
rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with
respect to:
Religion
Bavarian culture (Altbayern) has a long and predominant tradition of Roman Catholic faith. The current pope, Benedict XVI (Joseph Alois Ratzinger), was born in Marktl am Inn in Upper Bavaria and was Cardinal-Archbishop of Munich and Freising. Otherwise, the culturally Franconian and Swabian regions of the modern State of Bavaria are historically more diverse in religiosity, with both Catholic and Protestant traditions.
As of 2010 54.4% of Bavarians still adhere to Roman Catholicism
though the number is on the decline (they were 70.4% in 1970, 56.3% in
2007). 20,4% of the population adheres to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria, and their number is declining too. Muslims make up 4.0% of the population of Bavaria. 21.2% of Bavarians are irreligious or adhere to other religions.
Traditions
Bavarians commonly emphasize pride in their traditions. Traditional costumes collectively known as Tracht are worn on special occasions and include in Altbayern Lederhosen for males and Dirndl for females. Centuries-old folk music is performed. The Maibaum,
or Maypole (which in the Middle Ages served as the community's yellow
pages, as figurettes on the pole represent the trades of the village),
and the bagpipes in the Upper Palatinate region bear witness to the ancient Celtic and Germanic remnants of cultural heritage of the region. There are a lot of traditional Bavarian sports disciplines, e.g. the Aperschnalzen is an old tradition of competitive whipcracking.
Whether actually in Bavaria, overseas or full of citizens from other
nations they continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals
and dances to keep their traditions alive. In New York
the German American Cultural Society is a larger umbrella group for
others such as the Bavarian organizations, which represent a specific
part of Germany. They proudly put forth a German Parade called Steuben Parade each year. Various affiliated events take place amongst its groups, one of which is the Bavarian Dancers.
Food and drink
Bavarians tend to place a great value on food and drink.
In addition to their renowned dishes, Bavarians also consume many items
of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in Germany; for example Weisswurst ("white sausage") or in some instances a variety of entrails. At folk festivals and in many beer gardens, beer is traditionally served by the litre (the so-called Maß). Bavarians are particularly proud of the traditional Reinheitsgebot, or purity law, initially established by the Duke of Bavaria
for the City of Munich (e.g. the court) in 1487 and the duchy in 1516.
According to this law, only three ingredients were allowed in beer:
water, barley, and hops. In 1906 the Reinheitsgebot made its way to all-German law, and remained a law in Germany until the EU
struck it down recently as incompatible with the European common
market. German breweries, however, cling to the principle. Bavarians are
also known as some of the world's most beer-loving people with an
average annual consumption of 170 litres per person, although figures
have been declining in recent years.
Bavaria is also home to the Franconia wine region, which is situated along the Main River in Franconia. The region has produced wine (Frankenwein) for over 1,000 years and is famous for its use of the Bocksbeutel
wine bottle. The production of wine forms an integral part of the
regional culture, and many of its villages and cities hold their own
wine festivals (Weinfeste) throughout the year.
Language and dialects
Upper German, southern counterpart to Central German, both forming the High German Languages. Blue are the Austro-Bavarian dialects
Three German dialects are spoken in Bavaria: Austro-Bavarian in Old Bavaria (South-East and East), Swabian German (an Alemannic German dialect) in the Bavarian part of Swabia (South West) and East Franconian German in Franconia (North).
Ethnography
Bavarians consider themselves to be egalitarian and informal. Their sociability can be experienced at the annual Oktoberfest, the world's largest beer festival, which welcomes around six million visitors every year, or in the famous beer gardens.
In traditional Bavarian beer gardens, patrons may bring their own food
but only buy beer from the brewery that runs the beer garden.
In the United States, particularly among German Americans, Bavarian culture is viewed somewhat nostalgically, and many "Bavarian villages", most notably Frankenmuth, Michigan, Helen, Georgia and Leavenworth, Washington, have been founded. Since 1962, the latter has been styled with a Bavarian theme; it is also home to "one of the world's largest collections of nutcrackers" and an Oktoberfest celebration it claims is among the most attended in the world outside of Munich.
References
- "Fortschreibung des Bevölkerungsstandes" (in German). Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung. 31 December 2011.
- "State GDP". Portal of the Federal Statistics Office Germany. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- n-tv:Fiasko für die CSU
- Its GDP is 143% of the EU average (as of 2005) against a German average of 121.5%, see Eurostat
- Gemeinsames Datenangebot der Statistischen Ämter des Bundes und der Länder
- See the list of countries by GDP (nominal).
- "Kirchenmitgliederzahlen am 31. Dezember 2010" (PDF). ekd.de. Retrieved 2012-03-10.
- Etwa vier Millionen Muslime in Deutschland DIK-Studie
- Königlicher Hirschgarten. "Ein paar Worte zu unserem Biergarten in München ... (in German)".
- Leavenworth, Washington The Bavarian Village
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