Friday, March 21, 2014 - Litany Lane Blog:
Egoism, Psalms 105, Genesis 37:3-18 , Matthew 21:33-46, Pope Francis Daily, St Benedetta Cambiagio Frasinello, ,Catholic Catechism Part Three: Life in Christ Section Two: The Ten Commandment Chapter Two: Fourth Commandment Article 4:5 The Authoritues on Civil Society and In Brief
From Our Family to Yours, A Most Solemn Lenten Season
From Our Family to Yours, A Most Solemn Lenten Season
P.U.S.H. (Pray Until Serenity Happens). It has a remarkable way of producing solace, peace, patience and tranquility and of course resolution...God's always available 24/7.
The world begins and ends everyday for someone. We are all human. We all experience birth, life and death. We all have
flaws but we also all have the gift of knowledge, reason and free will,
make the most of these gifts. Life on earth is a stepping stone to our eternal home in
Heaven. The Seven Gifts of
the Holy Spirit: wisdom, understanding, wonder and awe (fear of the
Lord) , counsel, knowledge, fortitude, and piety (reverence) and shun
the seven Deadly sins: wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and
gluttony...Its your choice whether to embrace the Gifts of the Holy Spirit rising towards eternal light or succumb to the Seven deadly sins and lost to
eternal darkness. Material items, though needed for sustenance and
survival on earth are of earthly value only. The only thing that passes
from this earth to the Darkness, Purgatory or Heaven is our Soul...it's God's perpetual
gift to us...Embrace it, treasure it, nurture it, protect it...~ Zarya Parx 2013
"Raise not a hand to another unless it is to offer in peace and goodwill." ~ Zarya Parx 2012
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Prayers for Today: Friday in Lent
Rosary - Sorrowful Mysteries
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Papam Franciscus
(Pope Francis)
Pope Francis March 21 Daily:
Trust in God
(2014-03-21 Vatican Radio)
“The one who trusts in himself, in his own richness or ideologies is destined for unhappiness. The one who trusts in the Lord, on the other hand, bears fruit even of time of drought.” That was the message of Pope Francis at Mass this morning in the chapel at Casa Santa Marta.
“Cursed is the man who trusts in human beings,” “the man who trusts in himself”: he will be “like a barren bush in the desert,” condemned by the drought to remain without fruit and to die. Pope Francis began with the day’s First Reading, which also says that the one who trusts in the Lord will be blessed: “He is like a tree planted beside the waters,” who in times of drought “still bears fruit.” Only in the Lord, Pope Francis said, is our sure confidence. Trusting in others is useless; such confidences “don’t save, they don’t give us life, they don’t give us joy.” And even if we know this, “we like to trust ourselves, to trust in that friend or trust in that situation I have, or in that ideology” and “the Lord remains on the side.” Such a person is closed in on himself, “without horizons, without open doors, without windows” and “will not have salvation, he cannot save himself.” That’s what happens to the rich man in the Gospel, the Pope explained. “He had it all, he dressed in purple, he ate all day, great banquets.” He was so content, but he didn’t notice that there was a poor man “at his door . . . covered with sores.” The Pope said the Gospel gives the name of the poor man — he was called Lazarus — while the rich man has no name: “This is the worst misfortune of those who trust in themselves or in [their own]strength; in the possibilities of men and not in God: they lose [their] name. What is your name? The amount in your account, in your bank. . . . What is your name? So many properties, so many villas, so many. . . . What is your name? The things we have, the idols. And you trust in that, and this man is cursed.”
“We all have this weakness, this fragility,” the Pope said, “ of putting our hopes in ourselves or in friends or in human possibilities alone, and we forget the Lord. And that takes us along the path . . . of unhappiness.”
“Today, in this day of Lent, we would do well to ask ourselves: where is my confidence? In the Lord? Or am I a pagan, who confides in things, in the idols that I have made? Do I still have a name or have I begun to lose my name and [begun] to call myself ‘I’? I, me, with me, for me, only ‘I’? For me, for me . . . always that self-centredness: ‘I.’ This will not give us salvation.”
But, “in the end,” the Pope said, “there is a door of hope” for those who trust in themselves and “have lost [their] name”: “To the end, to the end, to the end there is always a possibility. And this man, when he realized that he had lost his name, he had lost everything, everything, looks up and says one word: ‘Father.’ And God's answer is one word: ‘Son!’ If one of us in life, having so much trust in man and in ourselves, we end up losing the name, losing this dignity, there is still a chance to say this word that is more than magic, it is more, it is strong: ‘Father.’ He always waits for us to open a door that we do not see and says to us: ‘Son.’ Let us ask the Lord for the grace that He would give to each of us the wisdom to have confidence only in Him — not in things, not in human powers; only in Him.”
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Liturgical Celebrations to be presided over by Pope: Winter
Vatican City, Winter 2014 (VIS)
Victimized Children. That children who are victims of abandonment or violence may find the love and protection they need.
Reference:
- Vatican News. From the Pope. © Copyright 2014 - Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Accessed 03/21/2014.
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November 2, 2013 Our Lady of Medjugorje Message to the World: "Dear children; Anew, in a motherly way, I am calling you to love; to
continually pray for the gift of love; to love the Heavenly Father above
everything. When you love Him you will love yourself and your neighbor.
This cannot be separated. The Heavenly Father is in each person. He
loves each person and calls each person by his name. Therefore, my
children, through prayer hearken to the will of the Heavenly Father.
Converse with Him. Have a personal relationship with the Father which
will deepen even more your relationship as a community of my children –
of my apostles. As a mother I desire that, through the love for the
Heavenly Father, you may be raised above earthly vanities and may help
others to gradually come to know and come closer to the Heavenly Father.
My children, pray, pray, pray for the gift of love because 'love' is my
Son. Pray for your shepherds that they may always have love for you as
my Son had and showed by giving His life for your salvation. Thank you."
October 25, 2013 Our Lady of Medjugorje Message to the World: “Dear children! Today I call you to open yourselves to prayer. Prayer works miracles in you and through you. Therefore, little children, in the simplicity of heart seek of the Most High to give you the strength to be God’s children and for Satan not to shake you like the wind shakes the branches. Little children, decide for God anew and seek only His will – and then you will find joy and peace in Him. Thank you for having responded to my call.”
October 2, 2013 Our Lady of Medjugorje Message to the World: "Dear children, I love you with a motherly love and with a motherly patience I wait for your love and unity. I pray that you may be a community of God’s children, of my children. I pray that as a community you may joyfully come back to life in the faith and in the love of my Son. My children, I am gathering you as my apostles and am teaching you how to bring others to come to know the love of my Son; how to bring to them the Good News, which is my Son. Give me your open, purified hearts and I will fill them with the love for my Son. His love will give meaning to your life and I will walk with you. I will be with you until the meeting with the Heavenly Father. My children, it is those who walk towards the Heavenly Father with love and faith who will be saved. Do not be afraid, I am with you. Put your trust in your shepherds as my Son trusted when he chose them, and pray that they may have the strength and the love to lead you. Thank you." - See more at: http://litanylane.blogspot.com/2013/11/tuesday-november-12-2013-litany-lane.html#sthash.1QAVruYo.bk3E9rXR.dpuf
October 25, 2013 Our Lady of Medjugorje Message to the World: “Dear children! Today I call you to open yourselves to prayer. Prayer works miracles in you and through you. Therefore, little children, in the simplicity of heart seek of the Most High to give you the strength to be God’s children and for Satan not to shake you like the wind shakes the branches. Little children, decide for God anew and seek only His will – and then you will find joy and peace in Him. Thank you for having responded to my call.”
October 2, 2013 Our Lady of Medjugorje Message to the World: "Dear children, I love you with a motherly love and with a motherly patience I wait for your love and unity. I pray that you may be a community of God’s children, of my children. I pray that as a community you may joyfully come back to life in the faith and in the love of my Son. My children, I am gathering you as my apostles and am teaching you how to bring others to come to know the love of my Son; how to bring to them the Good News, which is my Son. Give me your open, purified hearts and I will fill them with the love for my Son. His love will give meaning to your life and I will walk with you. I will be with you until the meeting with the Heavenly Father. My children, it is those who walk towards the Heavenly Father with love and faith who will be saved. Do not be afraid, I am with you. Put your trust in your shepherds as my Son trusted when he chose them, and pray that they may have the strength and the love to lead you. Thank you." - See more at: http://litanylane.blogspot.com/2013/11/tuesday-november-12-2013-litany-lane.html#sthash.1QAVruYo.bk3E9rXR.dpuf
Today's Word: egoism e·go·ism [ee-goh-iz-uh
m]
Origin: 1775–85; French égoïsme.
noun
1. the habit of valuing everything only in reference to one's personal interest; selfishness (opposed to altruism ).
2. egotism or conceit.
3.
Ethics. the view that morality ultimately rests on self-interest.
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Today's Old Testament Reading - Psalms 105:16-21
16 He called down famine on the land, he took away their food supply;
17 he sent a man ahead of them, Joseph, sold as a slave.
18 So his feet were weighed down with shackles, his neck was put in irons.
19 In due time his prophecy was fulfilled, the word of Yahweh proved him true.
20 The king sent orders to release him, the ruler of nations set him free;
21 he put him in charge of his household, the ruler of all he possessed,
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Today's Epistle - Genesis 37:3-4, 12-13, 17-18
3 Jacob loved Joseph more than all his other sons, for he was the son of his old age, and he had a decorated tunic made for him.
4 But his brothers, seeing how much more his father loved him than all his other sons, came to hate him so much that they could not say a civil word to him.
12 His brothers went to pasture their father's flock at Shechem.
13 Then Israel said to Joseph, 'Your brothers are with the flock at Shechem, aren't they? Come, I am going to send you to them.' 'I am ready,' he replied.
17 The man answered, 'They have moved on from here; indeed I heard them say, "Let us go to Dothan." ' So Joseph went after his brothers and found them at Dothan.
18 They saw him in the distance, and before he reached them they made a plot to kill him
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Today's Gospel Reading - Matthew 21:33-43.45-46
Jesus said to the chief priests and the
elders of the people: 'Listen to another parable. There was a man, a
landowner, who planted a vineyard; he fenced it round, dug a winepress
in it and built a tower; then he leased it to tenants and went abroad.
When vintage time drew near he sent his
servants to the tenants to collect his produce. But the tenants seized
his servants, thrashed one, killed another and stoned a third.
Next he sent some more servants, this time a larger number, and they dealt with them in the same way.
Finally he sent his son to them
thinking, "They will respect my son." But when the tenants saw the son,
they said to each other, "This is the heir. Come on, let us kill him and
take over his inheritance." So they seized him and threw him out of the
vineyard and killed him.
Now when the owner of the vineyard
comes, what will he do to those tenants?' They answered, 'He will bring
those wretches to a wretched end and lease the vineyard to other tenants
who will deliver the produce to him at the proper time.'
Jesus said to them, 'Have you never read
in the scriptures: The stone which the builders rejected has become the
cornerstone; this is the Lord's doing and we marvel at it? 'I tell you,
then, that the kingdom of God will be taken from you and given to a
people who will produce its fruit.'
When they heard his parables, the chief
priests and the scribes realised he was speaking about them, but though
they would have liked to arrest him they were afraid of the crowds, who
looked on him as a prophet.
Reflection
• The text of today’s Gospel forms part
of a whole which is more vast or extensive which includes Mathew 21,
23-40. The chief priests and the Elders had asked Jesus with which
authority he did those things (Mt 21, 23). They considered themselves
the patrons of everything and they did not want anybody to do things
without their permission. The answer of Jesus is divided into three
parts: 1) He, in turn, asks them a question because he wants to know
from them if John the Baptist was from heaven or from earth (Mt 21,
24-27). 2) He then tells them the parable of the two sons (Mt 21,
28-32). 3) He tells them the parable of the vineyard (Mt 21, 33-46)
which is today’s Gospel.
• Mathew 21, 33-40: The parable of the
vineyard. Jesus begins as follows: “Listen to another parable: There was
a man, a landowner, who planted a vineyard, he fenced it around, dug a
winepress in it and built a tower”. The parable is a beautiful summary
of the history of Israel, taken from the prophet Isaiah (Is 5, 1-7).
Jesus addresses himself to the chief priests, to the elders (Mt 21, 23)
and to the Pharisees (Mt 21, 45) and He gives a response to the question
which they addressed to him asking about the origin of his authority
(Mt 21, 23). Through this parable, Jesus clarifies several things: (a)
He reveals the origin of his authority: He is the Son, the heir. (b) He
denounces the abuse of the authority of the tenants, that is of the
priests and elders who were not concerned and did not take care of the
people of God. (c) He defends the authority of the prophets, sent by
God, but who were killed by the priests and the elders. (4) He unmasks
the authority by which they manipulate the religion and kill the Son,
because they do not want to lose the source of income which they succeed
to accumulate for themselves, throughout the centuries.
• Mathew 21, 41: The sentence which they
give to themselves. At the end of the parable Jesus asks: “Now, when
the owner of the vineyard comes, what will he do to those tenants? They
are not aware that the parable was speaking precisely of them. This is
why, with the response that they give, they decree their own
condemnation: “The chief priests and the elders of the people answered:
‘He will bring those wretches to a wretched end and lease the vineyard
to other tenants who will deliver the produce to him at the proper
time”. Several times Jesus uses this same method. He leads the person to
say the truth about himself, without being aware that he condemns
himself. For example in the case of the Pharisee who condemns the young
woman considering her a sinner (Luke 7, 42-43) and in the case of the
parable of the two sons (Mt 21, 28-32).
• Mathew 21, 42-46: The sentence given
by themselves was confirmed by their behaviour. From the clarification
given by Jesus, the chief priests, the elders and the Pharisees
understand that the parable speaks about them, but they do not convert.
All the contrary! They keep to their own project to kill Jesus. They
will reject “the corner stone”. But they do not have the courage to do
it openly, because they fear the reaction of the people.
• The diverse groups which held the
power at the time of Jesus. In today’s Gospel two groups appear which,
at that time, governed: the priests, the elders and the Pharisees. Then,
some brief information on the power which each of these groups and
others had is given:
a) The priests: They were the ones in
charge of the worship in the Temple. The people took to the Temple the
tithe and the other taxes and offerings to pay the promises made. The
High Priest occupied a very important place in the life of the nation,
especially after the exile. He was chosen and appointed from among the
three or four aristocratic families who possessed more power and riches.
b) The elders or the Chief Priests of
the People: They were the local leaders in the different villages of the
city. Their origin came from the heads of the ancient tribes.
c) The Sadducees: they were the lay
aristocratic elite of society. Many of them were rich merchants or
landlords. From the religious point of view they were conservative. They
did not accept the changes supported by the Pharisees, for example,
faith in the resurrection and the existence of the angels.
d) The Pharisees: Pharisee means:
separated. They struggled in a way that through the perfect observance
of the Law of purity, people would succeed in being pure, separated and
saint as the Law and Tradition demanded! Because of the exemplary
witness of their life according to the norms of the time, their moral
authority was greatly extended in the villages of Galilee.
e) Scribe or doctor of the Law: They
were the ones in charge of teaching. They dedicated their life to the
study of the Law of God and taught people what to do to observe all the
Law of God. Not all the Scribes belonged to the same line. Some were
united with the Pharisees, others with the Sadducees.
Personal questions
• Some times have you felt that you were
controlled in an undue manner, at home, at work, in the Church? Which
was your reaction? Was it the same as that of Jesus?
• If Jesus would return today and would tell us the same parable, how would I react?
Reference: Courtesy of Order of Carmelites, www.ocarm.org.
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Featured Item of the Day from Litany Lane
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Saint of the Day: St Benedetta Cambiagio Frasinello
Feast Day: March 21
Patron Saint: n/a
Attributes: n/a
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| Benedetta Cambiagio Frassinello |
Saint Benedetta Cambiagio Frasinello was born on 2 October 1791
in Langasco (Genoa) Italy; she died on 21 March 1858 in Ronco Scrivia in
Liguria. She was wife, religious and foundress. She let the Holy Spirit
guide her through married life to the work of education and religious
consecration. She founded a school for the formation of young women and
also a religious congregation, and did both with the generous
collaboration of her husband. This is unique in the annals of Christian
sanctity. Benedetta was a pioneer in her determination to give a high
quality education to young women, for the formation of families for a
"new Christian society" and for promoting the right of women to a
complete education.
Call to marriage, then to religious life
From her parents Benedetta received a Christian
formation that rooted in her the life of faith. Her family settled in
Pavia when she was a girl. When she was 20 years old, Benedetta had a
mystical experience that gave her a profound desire for a life of
prayer and penance, and of consecration to God. However, in obedience to
the wishes of her parents, in 1816, she married Giovanni Frassinello
and lived married life for two years. In 1818, moved by the example of
his saintly wife, Giovanni agreed that the two should live chastely, "as
brother and sister" and take care of Benedetta's younger sister, Maria,
who was dying from intestinal cancer. They began to live a supernatural
parenthood quite unique in the history of the Church.
Congregation founded by wife, who is supported by her husband
Following Maria's death in 1825, Giovanni entered the
Somaschi Fathers founded by St Jerome Emiliani, and Benedetta devoted
herself completely to God in the Ursuline Congregation of Capriolo. A
year later she was forced to leave because of ill health, and returned
to Pavia where she was miraculously cured by St Jerome Emiliani. Once
she regained her health, with the Bishop's approval, she dedicated
herself to the education of young girls. Benedetta needed help in
handling such a responsibility, but her own father refused to help her.
Bishop Tosi of Pavia asked Giovanni to leave the Somaschi novitiate and
help Benedettain her apostolic work. Together they made a vow of
perfect chastity in the hands of the bishop, and then began their common
work to promote the human and Christian formation of poor and abandoned
girls of the city. Their educational work was of great benefit to
Pavia. Benedetta became the first woman to be involved in this kind of
work. The Austrian government recognized her as a "Promoter of Public
Education". She was helped by young women volunteers to whom she
gave a rule of life that later received ecclesiastical approval. Along
with instruction, she joined formation in catechesis and in useful
skills like cooking and sewing, aiming to transform her students into
"models of Christian life" and so assure the formation of families.
Benedictine Sisters of Providence
Benedetta's work was considered pioneering for those
days and was opposed by a few persons in power and by the
misunderstanding of clerics. In 1838 she turned over the institution to
the Bishop of Pavia. Together with Giovanni and five companions, she
moved to Ronco Scrivia in the Genoa region. There they opened a school
for girls that was a refinement on what they had done in Pavia.
Eventually, Benedetta founded the Congregation of the Benedictine Sisters of Providence. In her rule she stressed the education of young girls. She instilled the spirit of unlimited confidence and abandonment to Providence and of love of God through poverty and charity. The Congregation grew quickly since it performed a needed service. Benedetta was able to guide the development of the Congregation until her death. On 21 March 1858 she died in Ronco Scrivia. Her example is that of supernatural maternity plus courage and fidelity in discerning and living God's will.
Today the Benedictine Nuns of Providence are present in
Italy, Spain, Burundi, Ivory Coast, Peru and Brazil. They are at the
service of young people, the poor, the sick and the elderly. The
foundress also opened a house of the order in Voghera. Forty years
after the death of Benedetta, the bishop separated this house from the
rest of the Order. The name was changed to the Benedictines of Divine
Providence who honour the memory of the Foundress.
She was beatified by John Paul II on 10 May 1987.
References
1. Vatican News. Saint Benedetta Cambiagio Frasinello. Vatican City, Rome, Italy. 2002. Retrieved 03/21/2014. http://www.vatican.va/news.../ns_lit_doc_20020519_benedetta_en.html●▬▬ஜ۩۞۩ஜ▬♥▬●▬ஜ۩۞۩ஜ▬♥▬●▬ஜ۩۞۩ஜ▬▬●
Today's Snippet I: Pavia, Italy
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| Medival Bridge of Pavia on Ticono River |
Pavia is the capital of a fertile eponymous province known for agricultural products including wine, rice, cereals, and dairy products. Although there are a number of industries located in the suburbs, these tend not to disturb the peaceful atmosphere of the town. The town also is home to the ancient University of Pavia. The University, together with the IUSS (Institute for Advanced Studies of Pavia), the Ghisleri College, the Borromeo College, the Nuovo College, the Santa Caterina College and the EDiSU, belongs to the Pavia Study System. Furthermore, Pavia is the see city of the Roman Catholic diocese of Pavia. The city possesses a vast amount of artistic and cultural treasures, including several important churches and museums, such as the well-known Certosa di Pavia.
History
Roman Period
Dating back to pre-Roman times, the town of Pavia, then known as Ticinum, was a municipality and an important military site (a castrum) under the Roman Empire. It was said by Pliny the Elder to have been founded by the Laevi and Marici, two Ligurian tribes, while Ptolemy attributes it to the Insubres. The Roman city most likely began as a small military camp, built by the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio in 218 BC to guard a wooden bridge he had built over the river Ticinum, on his way to search for Hannibal, who was rumoured to have managed to lead an army over the Alps and into Italy. The forces of Rome and Carthage ran into each other soon thereafter, and the Romans suffered the first of many crushing defeats at the hands of Hannibal, with the consul himself almost losing his life. The bridge was destroyed, but the fortified camp, which at the time was the most forward Roman military outpost in the Po Valley, somehow survived the long Second Punic War, and gradually evolved into a garrison town.Its importance grew with the extension of the Via Aemilia from Ariminum (Rimini) to the Po River (187 BC), which it crossed at Placentia (Piacenza) and there forked, one branch going to Mediolanum (Milan) and the other to Ticinum, and thence to Laumellum where it divided once more, one branch going to Vercellae - and thence to Eporedia and Augusta Praetoria - and the other to Valentia - and thence to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin).
Late Antiquity / Early Medieval Ages
It was at Pavia in 476 AD that the reign of Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476), the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire ended and Roman rule ceased in Italy. Romulus Augustulus, while considered the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was actually a usurper of the imperial throne; his father Flavius Orestes having dethroned the previous emperor, Julius Nepos, and raised the young Romulus Augustulus to the imperial throne at Ravenna in 475. Though being the emperor, Romulus Augustulus was simply the mouthpiece for his father Orestes, who was the person who actually exercised power and governed Italy during Romulus Augustulus’s short reign. Ten months after Romulus Augustulus’s reign began, Orestes’s soldiers under the command of one of his officers named Odoacer, rebelled and killed Orestes in the city of Pavia in 476. The rioting that took place as part of Odoacer’s uprising against Orestes sparked fires that burnt much of Pavia to the point that Odoacer as the new king of Italy, had to suspend the taxes for the city for five years so that it could finance its recovery. Without his father Romulus Augustulus was powerless. Instead of killing Romulus Augustulus, Odoacer pensioned him off at 6,000 solidi a year before declaring the end of the Western Roman Empire and himself king of the new Kingdom of Italy.Odoacer’s reign as king of Italy did not last long, because in 488 the Ostrogothic peoples led by their king Theoderic invaded Italy and waged war against Odoacer. After fighting for 5 years Theoderic defeated Odoacer and on March 15, 493 assassinated Odoacer at a banquet meant to negotiate a peace between the two rulers. With the establishment of the Ostrogoth kingdom based in northern Italy, Theoderic began his vast program of public building. Pavia was among several cities that Theodoric chose to restore and expand. He began the construction of the vast palace complex that would eventually become the residence of Lombard monarchs several decades later. Theoderic also commissioned the building of the roman-styled amphitheatre and bath complex in Pavia; in the seventh century these would be among the few still functioning bath complexes in Europe outside of the Eastern Roman Empire. Near the end of Theoderic’s reign the Christian philosopher Boethius was imprisoned in one of Pavia’s churches from 522 to 525 before his execution for treason. It was during Boethius’s captivity in Pavia that he wrote his seminal work the Consolation of Philosophy.
Pavia played an important role in the war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths that began in 535. After the Eastern Roman general Belisarius’s victory over the Ostrogothic leader Wittigis in 540 and the loss of most of the Ostrogoth lands in Italy, Pavia was among the last centres of Ostrogothic resistance that continued the war and opposed Eastern Roman rule. After the capitulation of the Ostrogothic leadership in 540 more than a thousand men remained garrisoned in Pavia and Verona dedicated to opposing Eastern Roman rule. The resilience of Ostrogoth strongholds like Pavia against invading forces allowed pockets of Ostrogothic rule to limp along until finally being defeated in 561.
Pavia and the peninsula of Italy didn’t remain long under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire for in 568 a new people invaded Italy. This new invading people in 568 were the Lombards (otherwise called the Longobards). In their invasion of Italy in 568, the Lombards were led by their king Alboin (r. 560-572), who would become the first Lombard king of Italy. Alboin captured much of northern Italy in 568 but his progress was halted in 569 by the fortified city of Pavia. Paul the Deacon’s History of the Lombards written more than a hundred years after the Siege of Ticinum provides one of the few records of this period: “The city of Ticinum (Pavia) at this time held out bravely, withstanding a siege more than three years, while the army of the Langobards remained close at hand on the western side. Meanwhile Alboin, after driving out the soldiers, took possession of everything as far as Tuscany except Rome and Ravenna and some other fortified places which were situated on the shore of the sea.” The Siege of Ticinum finally ended with the Lombards capturing the city of Pavia in 572. Pavia’s strategic location and the Ostrogoth palaces located within it would make Pavia by the 620s the main capital of the Lombards’ Kingdom of Pavia and the main residence for the Lombard rulers.
Under Lombard rule many monasteries, nunneries, and churches were built at Pavia by the devout Christian Lombard monarchs. Even though the first Lombard kings were Arian Christians, sources from the period such as Paul the Deacon have recorded that the Arian Lombards were very tolerant of their Catholic subjects’ faith and that up to the 690s Arian and Catholic cathedrals coexisted in Pavia. Lombard kings, queens, and nobles would engage in building churches, monasteries, and nunneries as a method to demonstrate their piety and their wealth by extravagantly decorating these structures which in many cases would become the site of that person’s tomb: as in the case of Grimoald (r. 662-671) who built San Ambrogio in Pavia and buried there after his death in 671. Perctarit (r. 661-662, 672-688) and his son Cunicpert (r.679-700) built a nunnery and a church at Pavia during their reigns’. Lombard churches were sometimes named after those who commissioned their construction, such as San Maria Theodota in Pavia. The monastery of San Michele alla Pusterla located at Pavia was the royal monastery of the Lombard kings.
One of the most famous churches built by a Lombard king in Pavia is the church San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro. This famous church was commissioned by king Liutprand (r. 712-744) and it would become the site of his tomb as well as two other famous Christian figures. In building San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro the unit of measurement used by the builders was the length of Liutprand’s royal foot. The first important Christian figure interred at San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro was the previously mentioned philosopher Boethius, author of the Consolation of Philosophy, who is located in cathedral’s crypt. The third and largest tomb of the three located in San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro contains the remains of St. Augustine of Hippo. St. Augustine is the early fifth century Christian writer from Roman North Africa whose works such as On Christian Doctrine revolutionized the way in which the Christian scripture is interpreted and understood. On October 1, 1695, artisans working in San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro rediscovered St. Augustine’s remains after lifting up some of the paving stones that compose the cathedral’s floor. Liutprand was a very devout Christian and like many of the Lombard kings was zealous about collecting relics of saints. Liutprand paid a great deal to have the relics removed from Cagliari and brought to Pavia so that they would be out of the reach and safe from the Saracens on Sardinia where St. Augustine’s remains had been resting. Very little of Liutprand’s original church of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro consecrated by Pope Zacharias in 743 remains today. Originally the roof of its apse was decorated with mosaics, making San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro the first instance of mosaics being used to decorate a Lombard church. It is now a modern church with the only significant link to its antiquity being its round apse. The Lombards built their churches in a very Romanesque style with the best example of Lombard churches from the period of Lombardic rule being the Basilica of San Michele still intact at Pavia.
As the kingdom’s capital, Pavia in the late seventh century also became one of the central locations of the Lombards’ efforts to mint their own coinage. The bust of the Lombard king would have been etched on the coins as a symbolic gesture so that those who used the coins, mostly Lombard nobles, would understand that king had the ultimate power and control of wealth in the Kingdom Of Pavia.
The city of Pavia played a key role in the war between the Lombard Kingdom of Pavia and the Franks led by Charlemagne. In 773, Charlemagne king of the Franks declared war and invaded across the Alps into northern Italy defeating the Lombard army commanded by king Desiderius (r. 757-774). Between the autumn of 773 and June of 774 Charlemagne laid siege to Pavia first and then Verona, capturing the seat of Lombard power and quickly crushing any resistance from the northern Lombard fortified cities. Pavia had been the official capital of the Lombards since the 620s, but it was also the place upon where the Lombard Kingdom in Italy ended. Upon entering Pavia in triumph, Charlemagne crowned himself king of the lands of the former Kingdom of Pavia. The Longobard kingdom and its northern territories from then onwards were a sub-kingdom of the Frankish Empire, while the Lombard’s southern dukedom of Benevento persisted for a few centuries longer with relative independence and autonomy.
Medieval Period
The Hungarians burned Pavia from sometime during 889 to 955 AD. Pavia remained the capital of the Italian Kingdom and the centre of royal coronations until the diminution of imperial authority there in the 12th century. In 1004 Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor bloodily suppressed a revolt of the citizens of Pavia, who disputed his recent crowning as King of Italy.In the 12th century Pavia acquired the status of a self-governing commune. In the political division between Guelphs and Ghibellines that characterizes the Italian Middle Ages, Pavia was traditionally Ghibelline, a position that was as much supported by the rivalry with Milan as it was a mark of the defiance of the Emperor that led the Lombard League against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who was attempting to reassert long-dormant Imperial influence over Italy. The city also had a reputation as a place to have a "good time," as witness the Archpoet's famous comments of 1163.
In the following centuries Pavia was an important and active town. Under the Treaty of Pavia, Emperor Louis IV granted during his stay in Italy the Electorate of the Palatinate to his brother Duke Rudolph's descendants. Pavia held out against the domination of Milan, finally yielding to the Visconti family, rulers of that city in 1359; under the Visconti Pavia became an intellectual and artistic centre, being the seat from 1361 of the University of Pavia founded around the nucleus of the old school of law, which attracted students from many countries.
Early Modern
The Battle of Pavia (1525) marks a watershed in the city's fortunes, since by that time, the former cleavage between the supporters of the Pope and those of the Holy Roman Emperor had shifted to one between a French party (allied with the Pope) and a party supporting the Emperor and King of Spain Charles V. Thus during the Valois-Habsburg Italian Wars, Pavia was naturally on the Imperial (and Spanish) side. The defeat and capture of king Francis I of France during the battle ushered in a period of Spanish occupation which lasted until 1713 at the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession. Pavia was then ruled by the Austrians until 1796, when it was occupied by the French army under Napoleon. During this Austrian period the University was greatly supported by Maria Theresa of Austria and saw a great renaissance that eventually led to a second renaissance due to the presence of leading scientists and humanists like Ugo Foscolo, Alessandro Volta, Lazzaro Spallanzani, Camillo Golgi among others.In 1815, it again passed under Austrian administration until the Second War of Italian Independence (1859) and the unification of Italy one year later.
Main sights
Pavia's most famous landmark is the Certosa, or Carthusian monastery, founded in 1396 and located eight kilometres (5.0 miles) north of the city.Among other notable structures are:
- Cathedral of Pavia (Duomo di Pavia), begun in 1488; however, only by 1898 were the façade and the dome completed according to the original design. The central dome has an octagonal plan, stands 97 m high, and weighs some 20,000 tons. This dome is the third for size in Italy, after St. Peter's Basilica and Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Next to the Duomo were the Civic Tower (existing at least from 1330 and enlarged in 1583 by Pellegrino Tibaldi): its fall on March 17, 1989, was the final motivating force that started the last decade's efforts to save the Leaning Tower of Pisa from a similar fate.
- San Michele Maggiore (St. Michael) is an outstanding example of Lombard-Romanesque church architecture in Lombardy. It is located on the site of a pre-existing Lombard church, which the lower part of the campanile belongs to. Destroyed in 1004, the church was rebuilt from around the end of the 11th century (including the crypt, the transept and the choir), and finished in 1155. It is characterized by an extensive use of sandstone and by a very long transept, provided with a façade and an apse of its own. In the church the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa was crowned in 1155.
- The Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro ("St. Peter in Golden Sky"), where Saint Augustine, Boethius and the Lombard king Liutprand are buried, was begun in the 6th century. The current construction was built in 1132. It is similar to San Michele Maggiore, but different in the asymmetric façade with a single portal, the use of brickwork instead of sandstone, and, in the interior, the absence of matronei, galleries reserved for women and the shortest transept. The noteworthy arch housing the relics of St. Augustine was built in 1362 by artists from Campione, and is decorated by some 150 statues and reliefs. The church is mentioned by Dante Alighieri in the X canto of his Divine Comedy.
- San Francesco d'Assisi, a late Romanesque church (1238–98) with a restored Gothic façade, located on Corso Cairoli.
- San Teodoro (1117), dedicated to Theodore of Pavia, a medieval bishop of the Diocese of Pavia, is the third romanesque basilica in the city, though smaller than the former ones. It is situated on the slopes leading down to the Ticino river and served the fishermen. The apses and the three-level tiburium are samples of the effective simplicity of romanesque decoration. Inside are two outstanding bird's-eye-view frescoes of the city (1525) attributed to the painter Bernardino Lanzani. The latter, the definitive release, was stripped off disclosing the unfinished first one. Both are impressively detailed and reveal how little Pavia’s urban design has changed during the last 500 years.
- The large fortified Castello Visconteo (built 1360-1365 by Galeazzo II Visconti). In spite of its being fortified, it actually was used as a private residence rather than a stronghold. The poet Francesco Petrarca spent some time there, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti called him to take charge of the magnificent library which owned about a thousand books and manuscripts, subsequently lost. The Castle is now home to the City Museums (Musei Civici) and the park is a popular attraction for children. An unconfirmed legend wants the Castle to be connected by a secret underground tunnel to the Certosa.
- The church of Santa Maria del Carmine is one of the best known examples of Gothic brickwork architecture in northern Italy. It is the second largest church in the city after the cathedral and is built on the Latin cross plan, with a perimeter of 80 x 40 meters comprising a nave and two aisles. The characteristic façade has a large rose window and seven cusps.
- The renaissance church of Santa Maria di Canepanova is attributed to Bramante.
- The medieval towers still shape the town skyline. The main clusters still rising are rallied in Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Via Luigi Porta, and Piazza Collegio Borromeo.
References
- Arnaldi, Girolamo. Italy and Its Invaders. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005. Print.
- Christie, Neil. The Lombards The Ancient Longobards. Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1995. Print.
- Dale, Sharon. A house divided: San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia and the politics of Pope John XXII. Journal of Medieval History 27:1. Web. November 8, 2013. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4181(00)00016-6
- Geary, Patrick J. Readings in Medieval History, vol. 1 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010. Print.
- Moorhead, John. Theoderic in Italy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. Print.
- Paul the Deacon. History of the Lombards. Translated by William Dudley Foulke, edited by Edward Peters. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Web. Oct. 15, 2009.
- Scott, Leader. The Cathedral Builders The Story of a Great Masonic Guild. London: S, Low, Marston and Company, 1899. Print.
- Thompson, E. A. Romans and Barbarians The Decline of the Western Empire. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1982. Print.
- Weinstein, Donald. Rev. of St. Augustine’s Bones: A Microhistory, by Harold Samuel Stone. The American Historical Review Vol. 108 No. 4, October 2003. Web. October 16, 2013.
- Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy Central Power and Local Society 400 –1000. London: The MacMillan Press Ltd., 1981. Print.
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Today's Snippet II: Genoa, Italy
Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba ("the Proud one") due to its glorious past and impressive landmarks. Part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List (UNESCO) in 2006 (see below). The city's rich art, music, gastronomy, architecture and history allowed it to become the 2004 European Capital of Culture. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus.
Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the country’s major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, and its solid financial sector dates back to the Middle Ages. The Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the city’s prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone and Piaggio Aero.
History
Ancient era and early Middle Ages
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| Portrayal of Genoa in 1493, woodcut from the Nuremberg Chronicle. |
The city's current name is derived from the Latin word meaning "knee" (genu; plural, genua), from its geographical position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch, thus akin to the name of Geneva. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder (Nat. Hist. 3.48) as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria.
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| The Medieval gates of Genoa are a rare survivor of the city's oldest buildings. |
For the following several centuries, Genoa was little more than a small centre, slowly building its merchant fleet which was to become the leading commercial carrier of the Mediterranean Sea. The town was sacked and burned in 934 by North African pirates and likely abandoned for a few years.
In the 10th century the city, now part of the Marca Januensis ("Genoese March") was under the Obertenghi family, whose first member was Obertus I. Genoa was one of the first cities in Italy to have some citizenship rights granted by local feudatories
Middle Ages and Renaissance
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| Monument to Christopher Columbus |
However, this prosperity did not last. The Black Death was imported into Europe in 1347 from the Genoese trading post at Caffa (Theodosia) in Crimea, on the Black Sea. Following the economic and population collapse, Genoa adopted the Venetian model of government, and was presided over by a doge (see Doge of Genoa). The wars with Venice continued, and the War of Chioggia (1378–1381)-- where Genoa almost managed to decisively subdue Venice—ended with Venice's recovery of dominance in the Adriatic. In 1390 Genoa initiated a crusade against the Barbary pirates with help from the French and laid siege to Mahdia. Though it has not been well-studied, the fifteenth century seems to have been a tumultuous time for Genoa. After a period of French domination from 1394–1409, Genoa came under rule by the Visconti of Milan. Genoa lost Sardinia to Aragon, Corsica to internal revolt and its Middle Eastern, Eastern European and Asia Minor colonies to the Turkish Ottoman Empire.
Genoa was able to stabilize its position as it moved into the sixteenth century, particularly thanks to the efforts of Andrea Doria, who established a new constitution in 1528, making Genoa a satellite of the Spanish Empire. Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such as chattel slavery) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World. Christopher Columbus, for example, was a native of Genoa and donated one-tenth of his income from the discovery of the Americas for Spain to the Bank of Saint George in Genoa for the relief of taxation on foods.
At the time of Genoa’s peak in the 16th century, the city attracted many artists, including Rubens, Caravaggio and Van Dyck. The famed architect Galeazzo Alessi (1512–1572) designed many of the city’s splendid palazzi, as did in the decades that followed by fifty years Bartolomeo Bianco (1590–1657), designer of centrepieces of University of Genoa. A number of Genoese Baroque and Rococo artists settled elsewhere and a number of local artists became prominent.
The plague killed as many as half of the inhabitants of Genoa in 1656–57.
In May 1625 the French-Savoian army that invaded the Republic was successfully driven out by the combined Spanish and Geonese armies.In May 1684, as a punishment for Genoese support for Spain, the city was subjected to a French naval bombardment, with some 13,000 cannonballs aimed at the city.
It was occupied by Austria in 1746 during the War of the Austrian Succession. This episode in the city's history is mainly remembered for the Genoese revolt, precipitated by a boy named Giovan Battista Perasso and nicknamed Balilla, who threw a stone at an Austrian official and became a national hero to later generations of Genoese (and Italians in general).
Being unable to retain its rule in Corsica, where the rebel Corsican Republic was proclaimed in 1755, in 1768 Genoa was forced by the endemic rebellion to sell its claim to Corsica to the French, in the Treaty of Versailles of 1768.
Modern history
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| Genoa in 1810 |
"Well, Prince, so Genoa and Lucca are now just family estates of the Buonapartes.(...) And what do you think of this latest comedy, the coronation at Milan, the comedy of the people of Genoa and Lucca laying their petitions [to be annexed to France] before Monsieur Buonaparte, and Monsieur Buonaparte sitting on a throne and granting the petitions of the nations?" (spoken by a thoroughly anti-Boanapartist Russian aristocrat, soon after the news reached Saint Petersburg).Although the Genoese revolted against France in 1814 and liberated the city on their own, delegates at the Congress of Vienna sanctioned its incorporation into Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia), thus ending the three century old struggle by the House of Savoy to acquire the city.
The city soon gained a reputation as a hotbed of anti-Savoy republican agitation (having its climax in 1849 with the Sack of Genoa), although the union with Savoy was economically very beneficial. With the growth of the Risorgimento movement, the Genoese turned their struggles from Giuseppe Mazzini's vision of a local republic into a struggle for a unified Italy under a liberalized Savoy monarchy. In 1860, General Giuseppe Garibaldi set out from Genoa with over a thousand volunteers to begin the conquest of Southern Italy. Today a monument is set on the rock where the patriots departed from.
In the late 19th century and the early 20th century, Genoa consolidated its role as a major seaport and an important steel and shipbuilding center. During World War II Genoa suffered heavy damages, from both naval and aerial bombings. The city was liberated by the partisans a few days before the arrival of the Allies.
In the post-war years, Genoa played a pivotal role in the Italian economic miracle, as the third corner of the so-called "Industrial Triangle" of northern Italy, formed by the manufacturer hubs of Milan and Turin and the seaport of Genoa itself. Since 1962, the Genoa International Boat Show has evolved as one of the largest annually recurring events in Genoa. The 27th G8 summit in the city, in July 2001, was overshadowed by violent protests, with one protester, Carlo Giuliani, killed amid accusations of police brutality. In 2007 15 officials, who included police, prison officials and two doctors, were found guilty by an Italian court of mistreating protesters. A judge handed down prison sentences ranging from five months to five years. In 2004, the European Union designated Genoa as the European Capital of Culture, along with the French city of Lille.
Historic sights
Genoa's historic centre is articulated in a maze of squares and narrow caruggi (typical genoese alleys). It joins a medieval dimension with following 16th-century and Baroque interventions (San Matteo square and the ancient via Aurea, now via Garibaldi).Remains of the ancient 17th-century walls are still visible nearby San Lorenzo cathedral, the most attended place of worship of Genoa.
The symbols of the city are the Lanterna (the lighthouse) (117 m high), old and standing lighthouse visible in the distance from the sea (beyond 30 km), and the monumental fountain of Piazza De Ferrari, recently restored, out-and-out core of the city's life.
Another tourist destination is the ancient seaside district of Boccadasse, with its multicolour boats, set as a seal to Corso Italia, the promenade which runs along the Lido d'Albaro, and known for its ice-creams. Just out of the city centre, but still part of the 33 km (21 mi) of coast included in the municipality's territory, are Nervi, natural doorway to the Ligurian East Riviera, and Pegli, the point of access to the West Riviera. The new Genoa based its rebirth upon the restoration of the green areas of the immediate inland parts (among them the Regional Natural Park of Beigua) and upon the realization of facilities such as the Aquarium in the Old Harbour - the biggest in Italy and one of the major in Europe - and its Marina (the tourist small port which holds hundreds of pleasure boats). All of this inside the restored Expo Area, arranged in occasion of the Columbian Celebrations of 1992.
The regained pride gave back to the city the consciousness of being capable of looking to the future without forgetting its past. The resumption of several flourishing hand-crafting activities, far-back absent from the caruggi of the old town, is a direct evidence of it.
The restoration of many of Genoa's churches and palaces in the 80's and the 90's contributed to the city's rebirth. A notable example the Renaissance Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta, sitting on the top of the hill of Carignano and visible from almost every part of the city.
The total restoration of Doge's Palace - once venue of dogi and senators and nowadays location of cultural events - and of the Old Harbour and the rebuilding of Teatro Carlo Felice, destroyed by the Second World War bombings that only spared the neoclassic pronao of the architect Carlo Barabino, were two more points of strength for the realization of a new Genoa.
Another monument of relevant importance that has been restored to its former beauty is the monumental Cemetery of Staglieno, in which the mortal remains of several known personalities rest, among them Giuseppe Mazzini, Fabrizio De André and Oscar Wilde's wife. With its characteristic skyline that still today gives the impression of an insurmountable fortress, it is distinguished by its thick network of hill fortifications on wide walls, that in the past war times mede the cemetery impregnable both for the ground and sea attacks. Genoa could not renounce, especially as from the 1960s, to a great renewal, which as happened in several other metropolis, should necessarily get through the realization of big council houses' complexes, whose quality, utility and functionality has been and still is constroversial for those residents living there. Concerning this, the most known cases are those of the so-called "biscione", a development in the shape of a long snake, situated on the hills of the populous district of Marassi, and the one of the group of houses known as "Le Lavatrici" (the washing machines), in the district of Prà.
In 1992, in occasion of the Columbian Celebrations ("Colombiadi"). The waterfront was completely restored and symbolized by the stylized "Great Bigo" (a sort of trademark of the genoese portual activity).
Beyond a complete restyling of the area, the ancient port zone nearby the Mandraccio opening, in Porta Siberia, was enriched by Genoese architect Renzo Piano with a large sphere made of metal and glass, installed in the port's waters, not far from the Aquarium, and unveiled in 2001 in occasion of the G8 Summit held in Genoa. The sphere (called by the citizens "Piano's bubble" or "The Ball"), after hosting an exposition of fens from Genoa's Botanical Gardens, currently houses the reconstruciton of a tropical environment, with several plants, little animals and butterflies. Piano also designed the subway stations and, in the hills area, the construction - in collaboration with UNESCO - of Punta Nave, base of the Renzo Piano Building Workshop.
Nearby the Old Harbour is the so-called "Matitone", a skyscraper in shape of a pencil, that lays side by side with the group of the WTC towers, core of the San Benigno development, today base of part of the Municipality's administration and of several companies.
Churches
St. Lawrence Cathedral (Cattedrale di San Lorenzo) is the city's cathedral, built in a Romanesque-Renaissance style. Other major churches in Genoa include the San Donato, Sant'Agostino, the Oratory of San Giacomo della Marina, Santo Stefano, San Torpete and the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata del Vastato. Most of these churches and basilicas are built in the Romanesque style, with the exception of Santissima Annunziata del Vastato which features an elaborate Baroque appearance.Buildings and palaces
The main features of central Genoa include Piazza De Ferrari, around which are sited the Opera and the Palace of the Doges. There is also a house where Christopher Columbus is said to have been born.Strada Nuova (now Via Garibaldi), in the old city, was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. This district was designed in the mid-16th century to accommodate Mannerist palaces of the city's most eminent families, including Palazzo Rosso (now a museum), Palazzo Bianco, Palazzo Grimaldi and Palazzo Reale. Palazzo Bianco and Palazzo Rosso are also known as Musei di Strada Nuova. The famous art college is also located on this street.
Other landmarks of the city include Palazzo del Principe, the Old Harbour (Porto Antico), transformed into a mall by architect Renzo Piano, and the famous cemetery of Staglieno, renowned for its monuments and statues. The Edoardo Chiossone Museum of Oriental Art has one of the largest collections of Oriental art in Europe.
Genoa also has a large aquarium located in the above-mentioned old harbour. The port of Genoa also contains an ancient lighthouse, called "La Lanterna".
Parks
Genoa has 82,000 square metres of public parks in the city centre, such as Villetta Di Negro which is right in the heart of the town, overlooking the historical centre. Many bigger green spaces are situated outside the centre: in the east are the Parks of Nervi (96,000 sq m.) overlooking the sea, in the west the beautiful gardens of Villa Durazzo Pallavicini (265,000 sq m.). The numerous villas and palaces of the city also have their own gardens, like Palazzo del Principe, Villa Doria, Palazzo Bianco and Palazzo Tursi, Palazzo Nicolosio Lomellino, Albertis Castle, Villa Croce, Villa Imperiale Cattaneo, Villa Bombrini, and many more.Promenades
Old harbour
The old harbour ("porto antico" in Italian) is the ancient part of the port of Genoa. Renzo Piano redeveloped the area for public access, restoring the historical buildings (like the Cotton warehouses) and creating new landmarks like the Aquarium, the Bigo and recently the "Bolla" (the Sphere). The main touristic attractions of this area are the famous Aquarium and the Museum of the Sea (MuMA). In 2007 these attracted almost 1.7 million visitors.Walls and fortresses
The city of Genoa during its long history at least since 9th century had been defended by different line of walls.To this day, large portions of these walls remain, and Genoa has more and longer walls than any other city in Italy. The main city walls are known as “Ninth century walls”, "Barbarossa Walls" (12th century ), "Fourteenth century walls", "Sixteenth century walls" and "New Walls" ("Mura Nuove" in Italian), the more imposing, built in the first half of 17th century on the ridge of hills around the city, having a length of almost 20 km (12 mi). Some fortresses stand along the perimeter of the "New Walls" or close them.
References
- Gino Benvenuti. Le repubbliche marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova e Venezia. Netwon Compton, Rome, 1989.
- Steven A. Epstein; Genoa & the Genoese, 958–1528 University of North Carolina Press, 1996; online edition
- Steven A. Epstein; "Labour and Port Life in Medieval Genoa." Mediterranean Historical Review. 3 (1988): 114–40.
- Steven A. Epstein; "Business Cycles and the Sense of Time in Medieval Genoa." Business History Review 62 ( 1988): 238–60.
- Face Richard. "Secular History in Twelfth-Century Italy: Caffaro of Genoa." Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 169–84.
- Hughes Diane Owen. "Kinsmen and Neighbors in Medieval Genoa." In The Medieval City, edited by Harry A. Miskimin, David Herlihy, and Adam L. Udovitch, 1977, 3–28.
- Hughes Diane Owen. "Urban Growth and Family Structure in Medieval Genoa." Past and Present 66 (1975): 3–28.
- Lopez Robert S. "Genoa." In Dictionary of the Middle Ages, pp. 383–87. 1982.
- Vitale Vito. Breviario della storia di Genova. Vols. 1–2. Genoa, 1955.
- Giuseppe Felloni – Guido Laura "Genova e la storia della finanza: una serie di primati ?" "Genoa and the history of finance: a series of firsts ?" 9 November 2004, ISBN 88-87822-16-6 (www.giuseppefelloni.it)
- Van Doosselaere, Quentin, Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
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Today's Snippet III: Carolingian art
There was for the first time a thoroughgoing attempt in Northern Europe to revive and emulate classical Mediterranean art forms and styles, that resulted in a blending of classical and Northern elements in a sumptuous and dignified style, in particular introducing to the North confidence in representing the human figure, and setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. The Carolingian era is part of the period in Medieval art sometimes called the "Pre-Romanesque". After a rather chaotic interval following the Carolingian period, the new Ottonian dynasty revived Imperial art from about 950, building on and further developing Carolingian style in Ottonian art.
Overview
 |
| Ivory plaque, probably from a book cover, Reims late 9th century, with two scenes from the life of Saint Remy and the Baptism of Clovis |
As symbolic representative of Rome he sought the renovatio (revival) of Roman culture and learning in the West, and needed an art capable of telling stories and representing figures with an effectiveness which ornamental Germanic Migration period art could not. He wished to establish himself as the heir to the great rulers of the past, to emulate and symbolically link the artistic achievements of Early Christian and Byzantine culture with his own.
But it was more than a conscious desire to revive ancient Roman culture. During Charlemagne's reign the Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was dividing the Byzantine Empire. Charlemagne supported the Western church's consistent refusal to follow iconoclasm; the Libri Carolini sets out the position of his court circle, no doubt under his direction. With no inhibitions from a cultural memory of Mediterranean pagan idolatry, Charlemagne introduced the first Christian monumental religious sculpture, a momentous precedent for Western art.
Reasonable numbers of Carolingian illuminated manuscripts and small-scale sculptures, mostly in ivory, have survived, but far fewer examples of metalwork, mosaics and frescoes and other types of work. Many manuscripts in particular are copies or reinterpretations of Late Antique or Byzantine models, nearly all now lost, and the nature of the influence of specific models on individual Carolingian works remains a perennial topic in art history. As well as these influences, the extravagant energy of Insular art added a definite flavour to Carolingian work, which sometimes used interlacedecoration, and followed more cautiously the insular freedom in allowing decoration to spread around and into the text on the page of a manuscript.
With the end of Carolingian rule around 900, high quality artistic production greatly declined for about three generations in the Empire. By the later 10th century with the Cluny reform movement, and a revived spirit for the idea of Empire, art production began again. New Pre-Romanesque styles appeared in Germany with the Ottonian art of the next stable dynasty, in England with late Anglo-Saxon art, after the threat from the Vikings was removed, and in Spain.
Illuminated manuscripts
 |
| Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850: a historiated initial 'C' contains the Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink. |
Other liturgical works were sometimes produced in luxury manuscripts, such as sacramentaries, but no Carolingian Bible is decorated as heavily as the Late Antique examples that survive in fragments. Teaching books such as theological, historical, literary and scientific works from ancient authors were copied and generally only illustrated in ink, if at all. The Chronography of 354 was a Late Roman manuscript that apparently was copied in the Carolingian period, though this copy seems to have been lost in the 17th century.
Centres of illumination
 |
| Saint Mark from the Ebbo Gospels. Figurine line drawing with colour. |
The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts, including the Godescalc Evangelistary (781–783); the Lorsch Gospels (778–820); the Ada Gospels; the Soissons Gospels; the Harley Golden Gospels (800-820); and the Vienna Coronation Gospels; ten manuscripts in total are usually recognised. The Court School manuscripts were ornate and ostentatious, and reminiscent of 6th-century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. They were the earliest Carolingian manuscripts and initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet still maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their basically linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.
In the early 9th-century Archbishop Ebo of Rheims, at Hautvillers (near Rheims), assembled artists and transformed Carolingian art to something entirely new. The Gospel book of Ebbo (816–835) was painted with swift, fresh and vibrant brush strokes, evoking an inspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms. Other books associated with the Rheims school include the Utrecht Psalter, which was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts, and the Bern Physiologus, the earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. The expressive animations of the Rheims school, in particular the Utrecht Psalter with its naturalistic expressive figurine line drawings, would have influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, into the Romanesque period.
Another style developed at the monastery of St Martin of Tours, in which large Bibles were illustrated based on Late Antique bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created, the last, and best, example was made about 845/846 for Charles the Bald, called the Vivian Bible. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire.
The diocese of Metz was another center of Carolingian art. Between 850 and 855 a sacramentary was made for Bishop Drogo called the Drogo Sacramentary. The illuminated "historiated" decorated initials (see image this page) were to have influence into the Romanesque period and were a harmonious union of classical lettering with figural scenes.
In the second half of the 9th century the traditions of the first half continued. A number of richly decorated Bibles were made for Charles the Bald, fusing Late Antiquity forms with the styles developed at Rheims and Tours. It was during this time a Franco-Saxon style appeared in the north of France, integrating Hiberno-Saxon interlace, and would outlast all other Carolingian styles into the next century.
Charles the Bald, like his grandfather, also established a Court School. Its location is uncertain but several manuscripts are attributed to it, with the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870) being the last and most spectacular. It contained Touronian and Rheimsian elements, but fused with the style that characterized Charlemagne's Court School more formal manuscripts.
With the death of Charles the Bald patronage for manuscripts declined, signaling the beginning of the end, but some work did continue for a while. The Abbey of St. Gall created the Folchard Psalter (872) and the Golden Psalter (883). This Gallish style was unique, but lacked the level of technical mastery seen in other regions.
Sculpture and metalwork
 |
| Gem-encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, 870 |
Important Carolingian examples of goldsmith's work include the upper cover of the Lindau Gospels; the cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, which can be precisely dated to 870, is probably a product of the same workshop, though there are differences of style. This workshop is associated with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald), and often called his "Palace School". Its location (if it had a fixed one) remains uncertain and much discussed, but Saint-Denis Abbey outside Paris is one leading possibility. The Arnulf Ciborium (a miniature architectural ciborium rather than the vessel for hosts), now in the Munich Residenz, is the third major work in the group; all three have fine relief figures in repoussé gold. Another work associated with the workshop is the frame of an antique serpentine dish in the Louvre. Recent scholars tend to group the Lindau Gospels and the Arnulf Ciborium in closer relation to each other than the Codex Aureus to either.
Charlemagne revived large-scale bronze casting when he created a foundry at Aachen which cast the doors for his palace chapel, in imitation of Roman designs. The chapel also had a now lost life-size crucifix, with the figure of Christ in gold, the first known work of this type, which was to become so important a feature of medieval church art. Probably a wooden figure was mechanically gilded, as with the Ottonian Golden Madonna of Essen.
One of the finest examples of Carolingian goldsmiths' work is the Golden Altar (824–859) also known as the Paliotto, in the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. The altars four sides are decorated with images in gold and silver repoussé, framed by borders of filigree, precious stones and enamel.
The Lothair Crystal, of the middle of the 9th century, is one the largest of a group of about 20 engraved pieces of rock crystal which survive; this shows large numbers of figures in several scenes showing the unusual subject of the story of Suzanna.
Mosaics and frescos
The villa to which the oratory was attached belonged to a key associate of Charlemagne, Bishop Theodulf of Orléans. It was destroyed later in the century, but had frescos of the Seven liberal arts, the Four Seasons, and the Mappa Mundi. We know from written sources of other frescos in churches and palaces, nearly all completely lost. Charlemagne's Aachen palace contained a wall painting of the Liberal Arts, as well as narrative scenes from his war in Spain. The palace of Louis the Pious at Ingelheim contained historical images from antiquity to the time of Charlemagne, and the palace church contained typological scenes of the Old and New Testaments juxtaposed with one another.
Reference
- Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque, Thames & Hudson, 1964 (rev. 1969), ISBN 0-500-20019-X
- Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the West, 800-1200, 1993, Yale UP, ISBN 0-300-06493-4
- Gaehde, Joachim E. (1989). "Pre-Romanesque Art". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-18276-9
- Hinks, Roger. Carolingian Art, 1974 edn. (1935 1st edn.), University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-06071-6
- Kitzinger, Ernst, Early Medieval Art at the British Museum, (1940) 2nd edn, 1955, British Museum
- Lasko, Peter, Ars Sacra, 800-1200, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 1972 (nb, 1st edn.) ISBN14056036X
- "Carolingian art". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online
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Catholic Catechism
Part Three: Life in Christ
Section Two: The Ten Commandments
Chapter Two: Fourth Commandment
Article 4:5 "The Civil Authority in Society"
CHAPTER TWO
YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR AS
YOURSELF
Jesus said to his disciples: "Love one another even as I have loved you."1 Jn 13:34
Jesus said to his disciples: "Love one another even as I have loved you."1 Jn 13:34
2196
In response to the question about the first of the commandments, Jesus says:
"The first is, 'Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is one; and you
shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and
with all your mind, and with all your strength.' the second is this, 'You shall
love your neighbor as yourself.' There is no other commandment greater than
these."2 Mk 12:29-31; cf.
⇒ Deut 6:4-5; ⇒ Lev
19:18; ⇒ Mt 22:34-40;
⇒ Lk 10:25-28
The apostle St. Paul reminds us of this: "He who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. the commandments, 'You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You shall not steal, You shall not covet,' and any other commandment, are summed up in this sentence, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' Love does no wrong to a neighbor; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law."3 Rom 13:8-10
The apostle St. Paul reminds us of this: "He who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. the commandments, 'You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You shall not steal, You shall not covet,' and any other commandment, are summed up in this sentence, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' Love does no wrong to a neighbor; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law."3 Rom 13:8-10
ARTICLE 4
THE FOURTH COMMANDMENT
Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God gives you.4 Ex 20:12; ⇒ Deut 5:16 He was obedient to them.5Lk 2:51 The Lord Jesus himself recalled the force of this "commandment of God."6 Mk 7:8-13 The Apostle teaches: "Children, obey your parents in the Lord, for this is right. 'Honor your father and mother,' (This is the first commandment with a promise.) 'that it may be well with you and that you may live long on the earth."'7 Eph 6:1-3; cf. ⇒ Deut 5:16
Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God gives you.4 Ex 20:12; ⇒ Deut 5:16 He was obedient to them.5Lk 2:51 The Lord Jesus himself recalled the force of this "commandment of God."6 Mk 7:8-13 The Apostle teaches: "Children, obey your parents in the Lord, for this is right. 'Honor your father and mother,' (This is the first commandment with a promise.) 'that it may be well with you and that you may live long on the earth."'7 Eph 6:1-3; cf. ⇒ Deut 5:16
2197
The fourth commandment opens the second table of the Decalogue. It shows us the
order of charity. God has willed that, after him, we should honor our parents
to whom we owe life and who have handed on to us the knowledge of God. We are
obliged to honor and respect all those whom God, for our good, has vested with
his authority.
2198
This commandment is expressed in positive terms of duties to be fulfilled. It
introduces the subsequent commandments which are concerned with particular
respect for life, marriage, earthly goods, and speech. It constitutes one of the
foundations of the social doctrine of the Church.
2199
The fourth commandment is addressed expressly to children in their relationship
to their father and mother, because this relationship is the most universal. It
likewise concerns the ties of kinship between members of the extended family.
It requires honor, affection, and gratitude toward elders and ancestors.
Finally, it extends to the duties of pupils to teachers, employees to
employers, subordinates to leaders, citizens to their country, and to those who
administer or govern it. This commandment includes and presupposes the duties
of parents, instructors, teachers, leaders, magistrates, those who govern, all
who exercise authority over others or over a community of persons.
2200
Observing the fourth commandment brings its reward: "Honor your father and
your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the LORD your God
gives you."8 Ex 20:12;
⇒ Deut 5:16 Respecting this commandment provides, along with
spiritual fruits, temporal fruits of peace and prosperity. Conversely, failure
to observe it brings great harm to communities and to individuals.
Duties of civil authorities
41 ⇒ Mt 20:26.
42 Cf. CA 25.
43 Cf. ⇒ Rom 13:1-2.
44 ⇒ 1 Pet 2:13, ⇒ 16.
45 ⇒ Rom 13:7.
46 Ad Diognetum 5, 5 and 10; 6, 10: PG 2, 1173 and 1176.
47 1 Tim 2:2.
48 ⇒ Mt 22:21.
49 ⇒ Acts 5:29.
50 GS 74 # 5.
51 Cf. CA 45; 46.
52 GS 76 # 3.
53 GS 76 # 5.
V. The Authorities In Civil
Society
2234
God's fourth commandment also enjoins us to honor all who for our good have
received authority in society from God. It clarifies the duties of those who
exercise authority as well as those who benefit from it.
Duties of civil authorities
2235
Those who exercise authority should do so as a service. "Whoever would be
great among you must be your servant."41 The exercise of authority
is measured morally in terms of its divine origin, its reasonable nature and
its specific object. No one can command or establish what is contrary to the
dignity of persons and the natural law.
2236
The exercise of authority is meant to give outward expression to a just
hierarchy of values in order to facilitate the exercise of freedom and
responsibility by all. Those in authority should practice distributive justice
wisely, taking account of the needs and contribution of each, with a view to
harmony and peace. They should take care that the regulations and measures they
adopt are not a source of temptation by setting personal interest against that
of the community.42
2237
Political authorities are obliged to respect the fundamental rights of the
human person. They will dispense justice humanely by respecting the rights of
everyone, especially of families and the disadvantaged.
The political rights attached to citizenship can and should be granted according to the requirements of the common good. They cannot be suspended by public authorities without legitimate and proportionate reasons. Political rights are meant to be exercised for the common good of the nation and the human community.
The political rights attached to citizenship can and should be granted according to the requirements of the common good. They cannot be suspended by public authorities without legitimate and proportionate reasons. Political rights are meant to be exercised for the common good of the nation and the human community.
The duties
of citizens
2238
Those subject to authority should regard those in authority as representatives of
God, who has made them stewards of his gifts:43 "Be subject for
the Lord's sake to every human institution.... Live as free men, yet without
using your freedom as a pretext for evil; but live as servants of
God."44 Their loyal collaboration includes the right, and at times
the duty, to voice their just criticisms of that which seems harmful to the
dignity of persons and to the good of the community.
2239
It is the duty of citizens to contribute along with the civil authorities to
the good of society in a spirit of truth, justice, solidarity, and freedom. the
love and service of one's country follow from the duty of gratitude and belong
to the order of charity. Submission to legitimate authorities and service of
the common good require citizens to fulfill their roles in the life of the
political community.
2240
Submission to authority and co-responsibility for the common good make it
morally obligatory to pay taxes, to exercise the right to vote, and to defend
one's country: Pay to all of them their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, revenue to
whom revenue is due, respect to whom respect is due, honor to whom honor is
due.45
[Christians] reside in their own nations, but as resident aliens. They
participate in all things as citizens and endure all things as foreigners....
They obey the established laws and their way of life surpasses the laws.... So
noble is the position to which God has assigned them that they are not allowed
to desert it.46
The Apostle
exhorts us to offer prayers and thanksgiving for kings and all who exercise
authority, "that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life, godly and
respectful in every way."47
2241
The more prosperous nations are obliged, to the extent they are able, to
welcome the foreigner in search of the security and the means of livelihood
which he cannot find in his country of origin. Public authorities should see to
it that the natural right is respected that places a guest under the protection
of those who receive him. Political authorities, for the sake of the common good for which they
are responsible, may make the exercise of the right to immigrate subject to
various juridical conditions, especially with regard to the immigrants' duties
toward their country of adoption. Immigrants are obliged to respect with
gratitude the material and spiritual heritage of the country that receives
them, to obey its laws and to assist in carrying civic burdens.
2242
The citizen is obliged in conscience not to follow the directives of civil
authorities when they are contrary to the demands of the moral order, to the
fundamental rights of persons or the teachings of the Gospel. Refusing
obedience to civil authorities, when their demands are contrary to those of an
upright conscience, finds its justification in the distinction between serving
God and serving the political community. "Render therefore to Caesar the
things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's."48
"We must obey God rather than men":49
When citizens are under the
oppression of a public authority which oversteps its competence, they should
still not refuse to give or to do what is objectively demanded of them by the
common good; but it is legitimate for them to defend their own rights and those
of their fellow citizens against the abuse of this authority within the limits
of the natural law and the Law of the Gospel.50
2243
Armed resistance to oppression by political authority is not legitimate, unless
all the following conditions are met: 1) there is certain, grave, and prolonged
violation of fundamental rights; 2) all other means of redress have been
exhausted; 3) such resistance will not provoke worse disorders; 4) there is
well-founded hope of success; and 5) it is impossible reasonably to foresee any
better solution.
The
political community and the Church
2244
Every institution is inspired, at least implicitly, by a vision of man and his
destiny, from which it derives the point of reference for its judgment, its
hierarchy of values, its line of conduct. Most societies have formed their
institutions in the recognition of a certain preeminence of man over things.
Only the divinely revealed religion has clearly recognized man's origin and
destiny in God, the Creator and Redeemer. the Church invites political
authorities to measure their judgments and decisions against this inspired
truth about God and man: Societies not recognizing this
vision or rejecting it in the name of their independence from God are brought
to seek their criteria and goal in themselves or to borrow them from some
ideology. Since they do not admit that one can defend an objective criterion of
good and evil, they arrogate to themselves an explicit or implicit totalitarian
power over man and his destiny, as history shows.51
2245
The Church, because of her commission and competence, is not to be confused in
any way with the political community. She is both the sign and the safeguard of
the transcendent character of the human person. "The Church respects and
encourages the political freedom and responsibility of the
citizen."52
2246
It is a part of the Church's mission "to pass moral judgments even in
matters related to politics, whenever the fundamental rights of man or the
salvation of souls requires it. the means, the only means, she may use are
those which are in accord with the Gospel and the welfare of all men according
to the diversity of times and circumstances."53
41 ⇒ Mt 20:26.
42 Cf. CA 25.
43 Cf. ⇒ Rom 13:1-2.
44 ⇒ 1 Pet 2:13, ⇒ 16.
45 ⇒ Rom 13:7.
46 Ad Diognetum 5, 5 and 10; 6, 10: PG 2, 1173 and 1176.
47 1 Tim 2:2.
48 ⇒ Mt 22:21.
49 ⇒ Acts 5:29.
50 GS 74 # 5.
51 Cf. CA 45; 46.
52 GS 76 # 3.
53 GS 76 # 5.
IN BRIEF
2247 "Honor your father
and your mother" (⇒ Deut 5:16;
⇒ Mk 7:10).
2248 According to the fourth
commandment, God has willed that, after him, we should honor our parents and
those whom he has vested with authority for our good.
2249 The conjugal community
is established upon the covenant and consent of the spouses. Marriage and
family are ordered to the good of the spouses, to the procreation and the
education of children.
2250 "The well-being of
the individual person and of both human and Christian society is closely bound
up with the healthy state of conjugal and family life" (GS 47 # 1).
2251 Children owe their
parents respect, gratitude, just obedience, and assistance. Filial respect
fosters harmony in all of family life.
2252 Parents have the first
responsibility for the education of their children in the faith, prayer, and
all the virtues. They have the duty to provide as far as possible for the
physical and spiritual needs of their children.
2253 Parents should respect
and encourage their children's vocations. They should remember and teach that
the first calling of the Christian is to follow Jesus.
2254 Public authority is
obliged to respect the fundamental rights of the human person and the
conditions for the exercise of his freedom.
2255 It is the duty of
citizens to work with civil authority for building up society in a spirit of
truth, justice, solidarity, and freedom.
2256 Citizens are obliged in conscience
not to follow the directives of civil authorities when they are contrary to the
demands of the moral order. "We must obey God rather than men"
(⇒ Acts 5:29).
2257 Every society's
judgments and conduct reflect a vision of man and his destiny. Without the
light the Gospel sheds on God and man, societies easily become totalitarian.
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