Usury, Psalms 19:8-15, Leviticus 19:1-18, Matthew 25:31-46, Saint Fra Angelico, Italian Renaissance, Roman Martyrology, Catholic Catechism Part One Section 2 The Creeds Chapter 2 Article 4:1 Jesus and Israel
Good Day Bloggers! Wishing everyone a Blessed Week!
Year of Faith - October 11, 2012 - November 24, 2013
P.U.S.H. (Pray Until Serenity Happens). It has a remarkable way of producing solace, peace, patience and tranquility and of course resolution...God's always available 24/7.
The world begins and ends everyday for someone. We are all human. We all experience birth, life and death. We all have
flaws but we also all have the gift of knowledge and free will,
make the most of these gifts. Life on earth is a stepping stone to our eternal home in
Heaven. Its your choice whether to rise towards eternal light or lost to
eternal darkness. Material items, though needed for sustenance and
survival on earth are of earthly value only. The only thing that passes
from this earth to Purgatory and/or Heaven is our Soul, our Spirit...it's God's perpetual
gift to us...Embrace it, treasure it, nurture it, protect it...
"Raise not a hand to another unless it is to offer in peace and goodwill." ~ Zarya Parx 2012
Heed the Solemnity of Lent! This Lent instead of "Giving Up" something, why not "Give" by volunteering time to a worthy cause, or extending a simple act of kindness!
34 “Then the King will say to those on His right, ‘Come, you who are blessed of My Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. 35 For I was hungry, and you gave Me something to eat; I was thirsty, and you gave Me something to drink; I was a stranger, and you invited Me in; 36 naked, and you clothed Me; I was sick, and you visited Me; I was in prison, and you came to Me.’ 37 Then the righteous will answer Him, ‘Lord, when did we see You hungry, and feed You, or thirsty, and give You something to drink? 38 And when did we see You a stranger, and invite You in, or naked, and clothe You? 39 When did we see You sick, or in prison, and come to You?’ 40 The King will answer and say to them, ‘Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me.’(Matthew 25:34-40)
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Prayers for Today: Monday in Lent
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Prayer For the Holy Election of Our New Pope
May the Lord preserve the sanctity of the enclave as they embark on electing our new Holy Father, give him life, and make him blessed upon earth, and deliver him not to the will of his enemies.
LET US PRAY:
O God, the Shepherd and Ruler of all the faithful, in Thy mercy look down upon Thy servant, (Our New Pope), whom Thou will appoint to preside over Thy Church, and grant we beseech Thee that both by word and example he may edify those who are under his charge; so that, with the flock entrusted to him, he may attain life everlasting. Through Christ our Lord. Amen.
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February 2, 2013 Message From Our Lady of Medjugorje to World:
"Dear children, love is bringing me to you - the love which I desire to
teach you also - real love; the love which my Son showed you when He
died on the Cross out of love for you; the love which is always ready to
forgive and to ask for forgiveness. How great is your love? My motherly
heart is sorrowful as it searches for love in
your hearts. You are not ready to submit your will to God's will out of
love. You cannot help me to have those who have not come to know God's
love to come to know it, because you do not have real love. Consecrate
your hearts to me and I will lead you. I will teach you to forgive, to
love your enemies and to live according to my Son. Do not be afraid for
yourselves. In afflictions my Son does not forget those who love. I will
be beside you. I will implore the Heavenly Father for the light of
eternal truth and love to illuminate you. Pray for your shepherds so
that through your fasting and prayer they can lead you in love. Thank
you."
January 25, 2013 Message From Our Lady of Medjugorje to World:
"Dear children! Also today I call you to prayer. May your prayer be as strong as a living stone, until with your lives you become witnesses. Witness the beauty of your faith. I am with you and intercede before my Son for each of you. Thank you for having responded to my call."
"Dear children! Also today I call you to prayer. May your prayer be as strong as a living stone, until with your lives you become witnesses. Witness the beauty of your faith. I am with you and intercede before my Son for each of you. Thank you for having responded to my call."
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Today's Word: usury u·su·ry [yoo-zhuh-ree]
Origin: 1275–1325; Middle English usurie < Medieval Latin ūsūria (compare Latin ūsūra ), equivalent to Latin ūs ( us ) (see use) + -ūr ( a ) -ure + -ia -y3
noun, plural u·su·ries.
1. the lending or practice of lending money at an exorbitant interest.
2. an exorbitant amount or rate of interest, especially in excess of the legal rate.
3. Obsolete . interest paid for the use of money.
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Today's Old Testament Reading - Psalms 19:8, 9, 10, 15
8 The precepts of Yahweh are honest, joy for the heart; the commandment of Yahweh is pure, light for the eyes.
9 The fear of Yahweh is pure, lasting for ever; the judgements of Yahweh are true, upright, every one,
10 more desirable than gold, even than the finest gold; his words are sweeter than honey, that drips from the comb.
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Today's Epistle - Leviticus 19:1-2, 11-18
1 Yahweh spoke to Moses and said:
2 'Speak to the whole community of Israelites and say: "Be holy, for I, Yahweh your God, am holy.
11 "You will not steal, nor deal deceitfully or fraudulently with your fellow-citizen.
12 You will not swear by my name with intent to deceive and thus profane the name of your God. I am Yahweh.
13 You will not exploit or rob your fellow. You will not keep back the labourer's wage until next morning.
14 You will not curse the dumb or put an obstacle in the way of the blind, but will fear your God. I am Yahweh.
15 "You will not be unjust in administering justice. You will neither be partial to the poor nor overawed by the great, but will administer justice to your fellow-citizen justly.
16 You will not go about slandering your own family, nor will you put your neighbour's life in jeopardy. I am Yahweh.
17 You will not harbour hatred for your brother. You will reprove your fellow-countryman firmly and thus avoid burdening yourself with a sin.
18 You will not exact vengeance on, or bear any sort of grudge against, the members of your race, but will love your neighbour as yourself. I am Yahweh.
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Today's Gospel Reading - Matthew 25:31-46
'When the Son of man comes in his glory, escorted by all the angels, then he will take his seat on his throne of glory. All nations will be assembled before him and he will separate people one from another as the shepherd separates sheep from goats. He will place the sheep on his right hand and the goats on his left. Then the King will say to those on his right hand, "Come, you whom my Father has blessed, take as your heritage the kingdom prepared for you since the foundation of the world. For I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you made me welcome, lacking clothes and you clothed me, sick and you visited me, in prison and you came to see me." Then the upright will say to him in reply, "Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you drink? When did we see you a stranger and make you welcome, lacking clothes and clothe you? When did we find you sick or in prison and go to see you?" And the King will answer, "In truth I tell you, in so far as you did this to one of the least of these brothers of mine, you did it to me." Then he will say to those on his left hand, "Go away from me, with your curse upon you, to the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. For I was hungry and you never gave me food, I was thirsty and you never gave me anything to drink, I was a stranger and you never made me welcome, lacking clothes and you never clothed me, sick and in prison and you never visited me." Then it will be their turn to ask, "Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty, a stranger or lacking clothes, sick or in prison, and did not come to your help?" Then he will answer, "In truth I tell you, in so far as you neglected to do this to one of the least of these, you neglected to do it to me." And they will go away to eternal punishment, and the upright to eternal life.'
Reflection
• The Gospel of Matthew presents
Jesus, the New Messiah. Like Moses, Jesus also promulgates the Law of
God. As the Ancient Law, the new one, given by Jesus, also contains five
books or discourses. The Sermon on the Mountain (Mt 5, 1 to 7, 27), the
first discourse opens with eight Beatitudes. The discourse on vigilance
(Mt 24, 1 to 25, 46), the fifth discourse, contains the description of
the Last Judgment. The Beatitudes describe the door of entrance into the
Kingdom, enumerating eight categories of persons: the poor in spirit,
the meek, the afflicted, those who hunger and thirst for justice, the
merciful, the pure of heart, the peacemakers and the persecuted because
of justice (Mt 5, 3-10). The parable of the Last Judgment tells us what
we should do in order to possess the Kingdom: accept the hungry, the
thirsty, the foreigners, the naked, the sick and the prisoners (Mt 25,
35-36): At the beginning as well as at the end of the New Law, there are
the excluded and the marginalized.
• Matthew 25, 31-33: Opening of the Last Judgment. The Son of Man gathers together around him the nations of the world. He separates the persons as the shepherd does with the sheep and the goats. The shepherd knows how to discern. He does not make a mistake; sheep on the right, goats on the left. Jesus does not make a mistake. Jesus does not judge nor condemn. (cfr. Jn 3, 17; 12, 47). He hardly separates. It is the person himself/herself who judges and condemns because of the way in which he/she behaves toward the little ones and the excluded.
• Matthew 25, 34-36: The sentence for those who are at the right hand of the Judge. Those who are at the right hand of the judge are called “Blessed of my Father!”, that is, they receive the blessing which God promised to Abraham and to his descendants (Gen 12, 3). They are invited to take possession of the Kingdom, prepared for them from the foundation of the world. The reason for the sentence is the following: “I was hungry, a foreigner, naked, sick and prisoner, and you accepted me and helped me!” This sentence makes us understand who are the sheep. They are the persons who accepted the Judge when he was hungry, thirsty, a foreigner, naked, sick and prisoner. And because of the way of speaking “my Father” and “the Son of Man”, we can know that the Judge is precisely Jesus Himself . He identifies himself with the little ones!
• Matthew 25, 37-40: A request for clarification and the response of the Judge: Those who accept the excluded are called “just”. That means that the justice of the Kingdom is not attained by observing norms and prescriptions, but rather by accepting those in need. But it is strange that the just do not even know themselves when they accepted Jesus in need. And Jesus responds: “Every time that you have done this to one of my brothers, you have done it to me”. Who are these little brothers of mine?” In other passages of the Gospel of Matthew, the expression “my brothers” and “the smallest brothers” indicates the disciples (Mt 10, 42; 12, 48-50; 18, 6.10.14; 28, 10). This also indicates the members of the community who are more abandoned and neglected who have no place and are not well received (Mt 10, 40). Jesus identifies himself with them. But not only this. In the broader context of the last parable, the expression “my smallest brothers” is extended and includes all those who have no place in society. It indicates all the poor. And the “just” and the “blessed by my Father” are all the persons from all nations who accept, welcome others with total gratuity, independently of the fact that they are Christians or not.
• Matthew 25, 41-43: The sentence for those who were at the left hand side. Those who were on the other side of the Judge are called “cursed” and they are destined to go to the eternal fire, prepared by the devil and his friends. Jesus uses a symbolical language common at that time to say that these persons will not enter into the Kingdom. And here, also, the reason is only one: they did not accept, welcome Jesus hungry, thirsty, a foreigner, naked, sick and prisoner. It is not that Jesus prevents them from entering into the Kingdom, rather it is our way of acting, that is our blindness which prevents us from seeing Jesus in the little ones.
• Matthew 25, 44-46: A request for clarification and the response of the Judge. The request for clarification indicates that it is a question of people who have behaved well, persons who have their conscience in peace. They are certain to have always practiced what God asked from them. For this reason they were surprised when the Judge says that they did not accept him, did not welcome him. The Judge responds: “Every time that you have not done these things to one of my brothers, the little ones, you did not do it to me”. It is the omission! They did not do anything extra. They only missed practicing good towards the little ones and the excluded. This is the way the fifth Book of the New Law ends!
Personal questions
• What struck you the most in this parable of the Last Judgment?
• Stop and think: if the Last Judgment would take place today, would you be on the side of the sheep or on the side of the goats?
• Stop and think: if the Last Judgment would take place today, would you be on the side of the sheep or on the side of the goats?
Reference: Courtesy of Order of Carmelites, www.ocarm.org.
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Featured Item of the Day from Litany Lane
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Saint of the Day: Fra Angelico
Feast Day: February 18
Patron Saint: n/a
Attributes: n/a
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| Selfportrait of Luca Signorelli (left) with Fra Angelico |
In 1982 Pope John Paul II conferred beatification,[4] in recognition of the holiness of his life, thereby making the title of "Blessed" official. Fiesole is sometimes misinterpreted as being part of his formal name, but it was merely the name of the town where he took his vows as a Dominican friar, and was used by contemporaries to separate him from other Fra Giovannis. He is listed in the Roman Martyrology[5] as Beatus Ioannes Faesulanus, cognomento Angelicus—"Blessed Giovanni of Fiesole, nicknamed Angelico".
Vasari wrote of Fra Angelico:
But it is impossible to bestow too much praise on this holy father, who was so humble and modest in all that he did and said and whose pictures were painted with such facility and piety.[2]
Biography
Early life, 1395–1436
The Virgin of the Annunciation
According to Vasari, Fra Angelico initially received training as an illuminator, possibly working with his older brother Benedetto who was also a Dominican and an illuminator. San Marco in Florence holds several manuscripts that are thought to be entirely or partly by his hand.[2] The painter Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art training, and the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work. He had several important charges in the convents he lived in, but this did not limit his art, which very soon became famous. According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were an altarpiece and a painted screen for the Carthusian Monastery of Florence; none such exist there now.[2]
From 1408 to 1418 Fra Angelico was at the Dominican friary of Cortona where he painted frescoes, now destroyed, in the Dominican Church and may have been assistant to or follower of Gherardo Starnina.[9] Between 1418 and 1436 he was at the convent of Fiesole where he also executed a number of frescoes for the church, and the Altarpiece, deteriorated but restored. A predella of the Altarpiece remains intact in the National Gallery, London which is a superb example of Fra Angelico's ability. It shows Christ in Glory, surrounded by more than 250 figures, including beatified Dominicans.
San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445
The Maestà (Madonna enthroned) with Saints Cosmas and Damian, Saint Mark and Saint John, Saint Lawrence and three Dominicans, Saint Dominic, Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Peter Martyr; San Marco, Florence
In 1439 he completed one of his most famous works, the Altarpiece for St. Marco's, Florence. The result was unusual for its times. Images of the enthroned Madonna and Child surrounded by saints were common, but they usually depicted a setting that was clearly heavenlike, in which saints and angels hovered about as divine presences rather than people. But in this instance, the saints stand squarely within the space, grouped in a natural way as if they were able to converse about the shared experience of witnessing the Virgin in glory. Paintings such as this, known as Sacred Conversations, were to become the major commissions of Giovanni Bellini, Perugino and Raphael.[10]
The Vatican, 1445–1455
The Crucified Christ
From 1447 to 1449 he was back at the Vatican, designing the frescoes for the Niccoline Chapel for Nicholas V. The scenes from the lives of the two martyred deacons of the Early Christian Church, St. Stephen and St. Lawrence may have been executed wholly or in part by assistants. The small chapel, with its brightly frescoed walls and gold leaf decorations gives the impression of a jewel box. From 1449 until 1452, Fra Angelico was back at his old convent of Fiesole, where he was the Prior.[2][12]
Death and beatification
Tomb of Fra Angelico, Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome
Pope John Paul II beatified Fra Angelico on October 3, 1982 and in 1984 declared him patron of Catholic artists.[4]When singing my praise, don't liken my talents to those of Apelles.
Say, rather, that, in the name of Christ, I gave all I had to the poor.
The deeds that count on Earth are not the ones that count in Heaven.
I, Giovanni, am the flower of Tuscany.—Translation of epitaph[2]
Angelico was reported to say "He who does Christ's work must stay with Christ always". This motto earned him the epithet "Blessed Angelico", because of the perfect integrity of his life and the almost divine beauty of the images he painted, to a superlative extent those of the Blessed Virgin Mary.—Pope John Paul II
From various accounts of Fra Angelico's life, it is possible to gain some sense of why he was deserving of canonization. He led the devout and ascetic life of a Dominican friar, and never rose above that rank; he followed the dictates of the order in caring for the poor; he was always good-humored. All of his many paintings were of divine subjects, and it seems that he never altered or retouched them, perhaps from a religious conviction that, because his paintings were divinely inspired, they should retain their original form. He was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most frequently treated.—William Michael Rossetti[12]
Artistic History
Background
Fra Angelico was working at a time when the style of painting was in a state of change. This process of change had begun a hundred years previous with the works of Giotto and several of his contemporaries, notably Giusto de' Menabuoi, both of whom had created their major works in Padua, although Giotto was trained in Florence by the great Gothic artist, Cimabue, and painted a fresco cycle of St Francis in the Bardi Chapel in the Basilica di Santa Croce. Giotto had many enthusiastic followers, who imitated his style in fresco, some of them, notably the Lorenzetti, achieving great success.[10]Patronage
San Marco, Florence,The Day of Judgement, upper panel of an altarpiece. It shows the precision, detail and colour required in a commissioned work
Contemporaries
Fra Angelico was the contemporary of Gentile da Fabriano. Gentile's altarpiece of the Adoration of the Magi, 1423, in the Uffizi is regarded as one of the greatest works of the style known as International Gothic. At the time it was painted, another young artist, known as Masaccio, was working on the frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel at the church of the Carmine. Masaccio had fully grasped the implications of the art of Giotto. Few painters in Florence saw his sturdy, lifelike and emotional figures and were not affected by them. His work partner was an older painter, Masolino, of the same generation as Fra Angelico. Sadly Masaccio died at 27, leaving the work unfinished.[10]Altarpieces
The works of Fra Angelico reveal elements that are both conservatively Gothic and progressively Renaissance. In the altarpiece of the Coronation of the Virgin, painted for the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella, are all the elements that a very expensive altarpiece of the 14th century was expected to provide- a precisely tooled gold background, lots of azure, lots of vermilion and an obvious display of arsenic green. The workmanship of the gilded haloes and gold-edged robes is exquisite and all very Gothic. What make this a Renaissance painting, as against Gentile da Fabriano's masterpiece, is the solidity, the three-dimensionality and naturalism of the figures and the realistic way in which their garments hang or drape around them. Even though it is clouds these figures stand upon, and not the earth, they do so with weight.[10]Frescoes
The Transfiguration shows the directness, simplicity and
restrained palette typical of these frescoes. Located in a monk's cell
at the Convent San' Marco, its apparent purpose is to encourage private
devotion.
Masaccio ventured into perspective with his creation of a realistically painted niche at Santa Maria Novella. Subsequently, Fra Angelico demonstrated an understanding of linear perspective particularly in his Annunciation paintings set inside the sort of arcades that Michelozzo and Brunelleschi created at San’ Marco's and the square in front of it.[10]
Lives of the Saints
Saint Lawrence Receives the Treasures of the Church (1447), in the Vatican, incorporates the expensive pigments, gold leaf and elaborate design typical of Vatican commissions.
In their bearing and expression, the saints painted by Fra Angelico come nearer to the truth than the figures done by any other artist.[2]It is probable that much of the actual painting was done by his assistants to his design. Both Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano were highly accomplished painters. Benozzo took his art further towards the fully developed Renaissance style with his expressive and lifelike portraits in his masterpiece of the Journey of the Magi, painted in the Medici's private chapel at their palazzo.[15]
Artistic legacy
Through Fra Angelico's pupil Benozzo Gozzoli's careful portraiture and technical expertise in the art of fresco we see a link to Domenico Ghirlandaio, who in turn painted extensive schemes for the wealthy patrons of Florence, and through Ghirlandaio to his pupil Michelangelo and the High Renaissance.Apart from the lineal connection, superficially there may seem little to link the humble priest with his sweetly pretty Madonnas and timeless Crucifixions to the dynamic expressions of Michelangelo's larger-than-life creations. But both these artists received their most important commissions from the wealthiest and most powerful of all patrons, the Vatican.
When Michelangelo took up the Sistine Chapel commission, he was working within a space that had already been extensively decorated by other artists. Around the walls the Life of Christ and Life of Moses were depicted by a range of artists including his teacher Ghirlandaio, Raphael's teacher Perugino and Botticelli. They were works of large scale and exactly the sort of lavish treatment to be expected in a Vatican commission, vying with each other in complexity of design, number of figures, elaboration of detail and skilful use of gold leaf. Above these works stood a row of painted Popes in brilliant brocades and gold tiaras. None of these splendours have any place in the work which Michelangelo created. Michelangelo, when asked by Pope Julius II to ornament the robes of the Apostles in the usual way, responded that they were very poor men.[10]
Within the cells of San’Marco, Fra Angelico had demonstrated that painterly skill and the artist's personal interpretation were sufficient to create memorable works of art, without the expensive trappings of blue and gold. In the use of the unadorned fresco technique, the clear bright pastel colours, the careful arrangement of a few significant figures and the skilful use of expression, motion and gesture, Michelangelo showed himself to be the artistic descendant of Fra Angelico. Frederick Hartt describes Fra Angelico as "prophetic of the mysticism" of painters such as Rembrandt, El Greco and Zurbarán.[10]
Artwork
Early works, 1408–1436
Virgin and Child with Saints, detail, Fiesole (1428–1430)
- Annunciation (c. 1430) – Diocesan Museum, Cortona
- Altarpiece - Coronation of the Virgin, with predellas of Miracles of St Dominic, Louvre, Paris
- Virgin and Child between Saints Thomas Aquinas, Barnabas, Dominic and Peter Martyr (1424) - Church of San Domenico, Fiesole
- Predella - Christ in Majesty, National Gallery, London.
- Deposition of Christ, said by Vasari to have been "painted by a saint or an angel". Now in the National Museum of San Marco, Florence.
- Coronation of the Virgin (c. 1432), Uffizi, Florence
- Coronation of the Virgin (c. 1434-1435), Louvre, Paris
- Last Judgement, Accademia, Florence
- Altarpiece - Coronation of the Virgin, Uffizi.
San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445
One of several versions of The Annunciation is located in St Mark's Convent.
- Altarpiece for chancel – Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian, attended by Saints Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen. Cosmas and Damian were patrons of the Medici; the altarpiece was commissioned in 1438 by Cosimo de' Medici. It was removed and disassembled during the renovation of the convent church in the seventeenth century.
- Altarpiece ? – Madonna and Child with twelve Angels (life sized); Uffizi.
- Altarpiece – The Annunciation
- San Marco Altarpiece
- Two versions of the Crucifixion with St Dominic; in the Cloister
- Very large Crucifixion with Virgin and 20 saints; in the Chapter House
- The Annunciation; at the top of the Dormitory stairs. This is probably the most reproduced of all Fra Angelico's paintings.
- Virgin enthroned with Four Saints; in the Dormitory passage
Each cell is decorated with a fresco which matches in size and shape the single round-headed window beside it. The frescoes are apparently for contemplative purpose. They are have a pale, serene, unearthly beauty. Many of Fra Angelico's finest and most reproduced works are among them. There are, particularly in the inner row of cells, some of less inspiring quality and of more repetitive subject, perhaps completed by assistants.[10] Many pictures include Dominican saints as witnesses, allowing the friar using the cell to place himself in the scene.
- The Adoration of the Magi
- The Transfiguration
- Noli me Tangere
- The three Marys at the tomb.
- The Road to Emmaus, with two Dominicans as the disciples
- There are many versions of the Crucifixion
- The Mocking of Christ
Late works, 1445–1455
Orvieto Cathedral
Three segments of the ceiling in the Cappella Nuova, with the assistance of Benozzo Gozzoli.
- Christ in Glory
- The Virgin Mary
- The Apostles
Niccoline Chapel
The Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, at the Vatican, was probably painted with much assistance from Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano. The entire surface of wall and ceiling is sumptuously painted. There is much gold leaf for borders and decoration, and a great use of brilliant blue made from lapis lazuli.
- The life of St Stephen
- The life of St Lawrence
- The Four Evangelists.
Discovery of lost works
Worldwide press coverage reported in November 2006 that two missing masterpieces by Fra Angelico had turned up, having hung in the spare room of the late Jean Preston, in her "modest terrace house" in Oxford, England. Her father had bought them for £100 each in 1965 then bequeathed them to her when he died in 1974. Jean had been consulted by their then owner in her capacity as an expert medievalist. She recognised them as being high quality Florentine renaissance, but it never occurred to anyone, even all the dealers she approached on behalf of the owner, that they could possibly be by Fra Angelico. They were finally identified in 2005 by Michael Liversidge of Bristol University. There was almost no demand at all for medieval art during the 1960s and no dealers showed any interest, so her father bought them almost as an afterthought along with some manuscripts. Ironically the manuscripts turned out to be high quality Victorian forgeries by The Spanish Forger. The paintings are two of eight side panels of a large altarpiece painted in 1439 for Fra Angelico's monastery at San Marco, but split up by Napoleon's army 200 years ago. While the centre section is still at the monastery, the other six small panels are in German and US museums. These two panels were presumed lost forever. The Italian Government had hoped to purchase them but they were outbid at auction on 20 April 2007 by a private collector for £1.7M. Both panels are now restored and exhibited in the San Marco Museum in Florence.[17][18]References
- Holweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co., 1924.
- Saint Alexis Falconieri at Patron Saints Index
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. Alexis Falconieri". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
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Today's Snippet I: Italian Renaissance
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| Adoration of the Magi, Leonardo Di Vinci |
The Italian Renaissance was the earliest manifestation of the general European Renaissance,
a period of great cultural change and achievement that began in Italy
during the 14th century and lasted until the 16th century, marking the
transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe.
The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency
in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt.
Although the origins of a movement that was confined largely to the
literate culture of intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to
the earlier part of the 14th century, many aspects of Italian culture
and society remained largely Medieval; the Renaissance did not come into
full swing until the end of the century. The word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means "rebirth" in French, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages.
These changes, while significant, were concentrated in the elite, and
for the vast majority of the population life was little changed from the
Middle Ages.
Era
The European Renaissance began in Tuscany (Central Italy), and centered in the cities of Florence and Siena. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, providing humanist scholars with new texts. The Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new all'antico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and even spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, and the English Renaissance.
Cultural achievements
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch (best known for the elegantly polished vernacular sonnet sequence of the Canzoniere and for the craze for book collecting that he initiated) and his friend and contemporary Boccaccio (author of the Decameron). Famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci (author of Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), and Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso). 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek. In the early 16th century, Castiglione (The Book of the Courtier) laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, while Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effettuale della cosa"—the actual truth of things—in The Prince, composed, humanist style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù.
Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Titian.
The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini (to name only a few, not to mention many splendid private residences: see Renaissance architecture). Finally, the Aldine Press, founded by the printer Aldo Manuzio, active in Venice, developed Italic type
and the small, relatively portable and inexpensive printed book that
could be carried in one's pocket, as well as being the first to publish
editions of books in Ancient Greek. Yet cultural contributions
notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of
the beginning of economic regression for Italy (there were some economic
downturns due to the opening up of the Atlantic trade routes and
repeated foreign invasions and interference by both France and the
Spanish Empire).
Northern and Central Italy in the Late Middle Ages
By the Late Middle Ages ( circa 1300 onward ), Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire, and southern Italy, was poorer than the north. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States
were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such
as that of France and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. In the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily and later for two centuries during the Norman Kingdom and the Hohenstaufen Kingdom, but had declined by the late Middle Ages.
In contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, with the City-States among the wealthiest in Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and Genoese. The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice.
Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were
imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover, the
inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic
generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in
mining and agriculture. Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in
resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development,
stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. In particular, Florence
became one of the wealthiest of the cities of Northern Italy, due mainly
to its woolen textile production, developed under the supervision of
its dominant trade guild, the Arte della Lana. Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the 16th century from Spain) and together with dyes from the east were used to make high quality textiles.
The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. The recovery of lost Greek classics, and to a lesser extent independent Arab contributions, played an important part in the revitalization of medieval philosophy in the Renaissance of the 12th century, just as the refugee Greek scholars who migrated to Italy during the onslaught of the Ottomans against the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century were important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in newly created academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors. The rediscovery of Vitruvius
meant that the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed
once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of
humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read.
Thirteenth-century
In the 13th century, much of Europe experienced strong economic
growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of
established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League
of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network
economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; apart from the Kingdom of Naples, outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double-entry book-keeping, joint stock companies, an international banking system, a systematized foreign exchange market, insurance, and government debt. Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade.
The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal
aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. A
feature of the High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. In much of the region, the landed nobility
was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy
whose inflationary rise left land-holding aristocrats impoverished. The
increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these
characteristics. The decline of feudalism and the rise of cities
influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to
an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming
wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This change also
gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the
Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important
effects of this political control was security. Those that grew
extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul
of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred
to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.
Fourteenth-century collapse
The 14th century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. The Hundred Years' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. Most devastating, though, was the Black Death
that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of
Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. Florence, for
instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the
next 47 years by 25–50%. Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378.
It was during this period of instability that the Renaissance authors such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and the first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen, notably in the realism of Giotto. Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death
wiped out a third of Europe's population. The resulting labour shortage
increased wages and the reduced population was therefore much
wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to
spend on luxury goods. As incidences of the plague
began to decline in the early 15th century, Europe's devastated
population once again began to grow. The new demand for products and
services also helped create a growing class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans. The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence. Additionally, the collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Roberto Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance.
According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would
have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a
climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the
14th century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities
for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.
Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron, that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long-running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late 14th century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti,
who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty
and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern
Italy. He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering
neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by
Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the
1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to
fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.
Baron's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading
figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one
between the free republic and a despotic monarchy, between the ideals of
the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and
Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this
ideology was Leonardo Bruni.
This time of crisis in Florence was the period when the most
influential figures of the early Renaissance were coming of age, such as
Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi.
Inculcated with this republican ideology they later went on to advocate
republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on the
Renaissance.
Development
International relations
Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice.
High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long-running
battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire: each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries,
prosperous city-states could field considerable forces, despite their
low populations. In the course of the 15th century, the most powerful
city-states annexed their smaller neighbors. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma.
The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land
and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars
were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri,
bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and
Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not
willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges
and maneuvering, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the
interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to
continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to
their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it
became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the
temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it
themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions.
At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The
main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict
the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more
powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the
15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to
threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice
developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened.
On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as
the dominant players, and these two powers finally set aside their
differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi
in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first
time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and
Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented
peace for much of the rest of the 15th century. In the beginning of the
15th century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) traveled as far as Southeast Asia
and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging
further European voyages of exploration in the years to come.
Florence under the Medici
Until the late 14th century, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi. Their main challengers were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then
Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and
elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria
elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town's leading
family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries.
Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end
of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican
government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies,
save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo
rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.
Cosimo de' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for
bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most
important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza
ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of
Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts,
directly and indirectly, by the influential example he set.
Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo's twenty-one-year-old grandson Lorenzo,
who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent." Lorenzo was the
first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist
tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance's most important
patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with
the creation of a new Council of Seventy,
which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they
lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious
forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly
eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with
the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the plot failed, Lorenzo's young brother, Giuliano,
was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy
and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo's
hands.
Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca.
The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern
Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout
the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti. Venice,
one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Adriatic Sea,
also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture.
Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which
developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara, Mantua under the Gonzaga, Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro. In Naples, the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano.
In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once imperial city
remained poor and largely in ruins through the first years of the
Renaissance. The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V,
who became pontiff in 1447. He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort
that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar
Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became Pope Pius II in 1458. As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes".
The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century.
The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the
aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen
with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top
figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A
flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early
Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class
origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.
Wider population
As a cultural movement, the Italian Renaissance affected only a small
part of the population. Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe,
but three quarters of the people were still rural peasants. For this section of the population, life was essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, and most peasants worked on private farms or as sharecroppers. Some scholars see a trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats.
The situation was very different in the cities. These were dominated
by a commercial elite; as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval
kingdom. It was this group that was the main patron of and audience for
Renaissance culture. Below them there was a large class of artisans and
guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in
the republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of
Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and
educated, this group did participate in the Renaissance culture.
The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of
semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants the
Renaissance had little effect on them. Historians debate how easy it was
to move between these groups during the Italian Renaissance. Examples
of individuals who rose from humble beginnings can be instanced, but
Burke notes two major studies in this area that have found that the data
do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility.
Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was
quite high, but that it faded over the course of the 15th century.
Inequality in society was very high. An upper-class figure would
control hundreds of times more income than a servant or labourer. Some
historians feel that this unequal distribution of wealth was important
to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy.
The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change,
only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small
fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many
historians, such as any that follow historical materialism, to reduce the importance of the Renaissance in human history. These historians tend to think in terms of "Early Modern Europe" instead. Roger Osborne
argues that "The Renaissance is a difficult concept for historians
because the history of Europe quite suddenly turns into a history of
Italian painting, sculpture and architecture."
Renaissance end
The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting
point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola
in 1494-1498 marks the end of the city's flourishing; for others, the
triumphant return of the Medici marks the beginning of the late phase in
the arts called Mannerism.
Other accounts trace the end of the Italian Renaissance to the French
invasions of the early 16th century and the subsequent conflict between
France and Spanish rulers for control of Italian territory. Savonarola rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance – his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities" in the centre of Florence.
With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the counter movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works of literature, which marks the end of the illuminated manuscript together with Giulio Clovio,
who is considered the greatest illuminator of the Italian High
Renaissance, and arguably the last very notable artist in the long
tradition of the illuminated manuscript, before some modern revivals.
Equally important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars
that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494
invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy
and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging
was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture.
While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance
adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of
Italy's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was
Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created the school of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to Antwerp and thence throughout Northern Europe.
This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No
longer was the Mediterranean Europe's most important trade route. In
1498, Vasco da Gama
reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the
Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes,
Bristol, and London. These areas quickly surpassed Italy in wealth and
power.
Culture
Literature and poetry
The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin, French, or Provençal. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli. Especially in poetry, major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.
With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius,
an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian
language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that
constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for
these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence.
In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek.
Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient
authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and
styles of the ancient Greeks into their own works. Among the most
emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the 4th century, though Greek compositions were few.
The literature and poetry of the Renaissance was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch,
a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an
accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. He
wrote poetry in Latin, notably the Punic War epic Africa, but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular, especially the Canzoniere, a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. He was the foremost writer of sonnets in Italian, and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established the sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets.
Petrarch's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio, became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron, a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron
in particular and Boccaccio's work in general were a major source of
inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance,
including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.
Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity, and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli's most famous works are Discourses on Livy, Florentine Histories and finally The Prince, which has become so well known in Western society that the term "Machiavellian" has come to refer to the realpolitik
advocated by the book. However, what is ordinarily called
"Machiavellianism" is a simplified textbook view of this single work
rather than an accurate term for his philosophy. Further, it is not at
all clear that Machiavelli himself was the apologist for immorality as
whom he is often portrayed: the basic problem is the apparent
contradiction between the monarchism of The Prince and the republicanism of the Discourses. Regardless, along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today.
Philosophy
One role of Petrarch
is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance Humanism.
Humanism was an optimistic philosophy that saw man as a rational and
sentient being, with the ability to decide and think for himself, and
saw man as inherently good by nature, which was in tension with the
Christian view of man as the original sinner
needing redemption. It provoked fresh insight into the nature of
reality, questioning beyond God and spirituality, and provided for
knowledge about history beyond Christian history.
Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin
classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone
to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in the humanist education
being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola
was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known
only by reputation. These endeavors were greatly aided by the wealth of
Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who would spend
substantial sums building libraries. Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press
was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and
Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a
receptive middle-class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare,
"with little Latin and less Greek".
While concern for philosophy,
art and literature all increased greatly in the Renaissance the period
is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. The reverence for
classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic
views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed
as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or
mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the
rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion.
Science
According to some recent scholarship, the 'father of modern science' is Leonardo Da Vinci
whose experiments and clear scientific method earn him this title,
Italian universities such as Padua, Bologna and Pisa were scientific
centres of renown and with many northern European students, the science
of the Renaissance moved to Northern Europe and flourished there, with
such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes. Galileo,
a contemporary of Bacon and Descartes, made an immense contribution to
scientific thought and experimentation, paving the way for the
scientific revolution that later flourished in Northern Europe. Bodies
were also stolen from gallows and examined by many like Vesalius, a
professor of anatomy. This allowed them to create accurate skeleton
models and correct previously believed theories. For example many
thought that the human jawbone was made up of two bones, as they had seen this on animals. However through examining human corpses they were able to understand that we actually only have one.
Sculpture and painting
In painting, the false dawn of Giotto's Trecento
realism, his fully three-dimensional figures occupying a rational
space, and his humanist interest in expressing the individual
personality rather than the iconic images,[22] was followed by a retreat into conservative late Gothic conventions.
The Italian Renaissance in painting began anew, in Florence and Tuscany, with the frescoes of Masaccio, then the panel paintings and frescos of Piero della Francesca and Paolo Uccello which began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions
in two-dimensional art more authentically. Piero della Francesca wrote
treatises on scientific perspective. The creation of credible space
allowed artists to also focus on the accurate representation of the
human body and on naturalistic landscapes. Masaccio's
figures have a plasticity unknown up to that point in time. Compared to
the flatness of Gothic painting, his pictures were revolutionary.
Around 1459 San Zeno Altarpiece (Mantegna),
it was probably the first good example of Renaissance painting in
Northern Italy a model for all Verona's painters, for example Girolamo dai Libri.
At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists
also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and
darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. The period also saw the first secular (non-religious) themes. There has been much debate as to the degree of secularism
in the Renaissance, which had been emphasized by early 20th-century
writers like Jacob Burckhardt, based on, among other things, the
presence of a relatively small number of mythological paintings. Those
of Botticelli, notably The Birth of Venus and Primavera,
are now among the best known, although he was deeply religious
(becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output
was of traditional religious paintings or portraits.
In sculpture, Donatello's (1386–1466) study of classical sculpture lead to his development of classicizing positions (such as the contrapposto pose) and subject matter (like the unsupported nude – his second sculpture of David
was the first free-standing bronze nude created in Europe since the
Roman Empire.) The progress made by Donatello was influential on all who
followed; perhaps the greatest of whom is Michelangelo, whose David
of 1500 is also a male nude study; more naturalistic than Donatello's
and with greater emotional intensity. Both sculptures are standing in contrapposto, their weight shifted to one leg.
The period known as the High Renaissance
represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely
the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible
motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most famous painters
from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Their images are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Leonardo's Last Supper, Raphael's The School of Athens and Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the masterpieces of the period.
High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism,
especially in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled
against the principles of High Renaissance, tend to represent elongated
figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the
capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion
where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of
this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael's pupil Giulio Romano.
Architecture
In Florence, the Renaissance style was introduced with a revolutionary but incomplete monument in Rimini by Leone Battista Alberti. Some of the earliest buildings showing Renaissance characteristics are Filippo Brunelleschi's church of San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel. The interior of Santo Spirito
expresses a new sense of light, clarity and spaciousness, which is
typical of the early Italian Renaissance. Its architecture reflects the
philosophy of Humanism,
the enlightenment and clarity of mind as opposed to the darkness and
spirituality of the Middle Ages.
The revival of classical antiquity can
best be illustrated by the Palazzo Rucellai. Here the pilasters follow the superposition of classical orders, with Doric capitals on the ground floor, Ionic capitals on the piano nobile and Corinthian capitals on the uppermost floor.
In Mantua, Leone Battista Alberti ushered in the new antique style, though his culminating work, Sant'Andrea, was not begun until 1472, after the architect's death.
The High Renaissance, as we call the style today, was introduced to Rome with Donato Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio (1502) and his original centrally planned St. Peter's Basilica
(1506), which was the most notable architectural commission of the era,
influenced by almost all notable Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta.
The beginning of the late Renaissance in 1550 was marked by the development of a new column order by Andrea Palladio. Colossal columns that were two or more stories tall decorated the facades.
Music
In Italy during the 14th century there was an explosion of musical
activity that corresponded in scope and level of innovation to the
activity in the other arts. Although musicologists typically group the music of the Trecento (music of the 14th century) with the late medieval
period, it included features which align with the early Renaissance in
important ways: an increasing emphasis on secular sources, styles and
forms; a spreading of culture away from ecclesiastical institutions to
the nobility, and even to the common people; and a quick development of
entirely new techniques. The principal forms were the Trecento madrigal, the caccia, and the ballata. Overall, the musical style of the period is sometimes labelled as the "Italian ars nova." From the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, the center of innovation in sacred music was in the Low Countries,
and a flood of talented composers came to Italy from this region. Many
of them sang in either the papal choir in Rome or the choirs at the
numerous chapels of the aristocracy, in Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ferrara and elsewhere; and they brought their polyphonic style with them, influencing many native Italian composers during their stay.
The predominant forms of church music during the period were the mass and the motet. By far the most famous composer of church music in 16th century Italy was Palestrina, the most prominent member of the Roman School,
whose style of smooth, emotionally cool polyphony was to become the
defining sound of the late 16th century, at least for generations of
19th- and 20th century musicologists. Other Italian composers of the
late 16th century focused on composing the main secular form of the era,
the madrigal:
and for almost a hundred years these secular songs for multiple singers
were distributed all over Europe. Composers of madrigals included Jacques Arcadelt, at the beginning of the age, Cipriano de Rore, in the middle of the century, and Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi
at the end of the era. Italy was also a centre of innovation in
instrumental music. By the early 16th century keyboard improvisation
came to be greatly valued, and numerous composers of virtuoso keyboard
music appeared. Many familiar instruments were invented and perfected in
late Renaissance Italy, such as the violin, the earliest forms of which came into use in the 1550s.
By the late 16th century Italy was the musical centre of Europe.
Almost all of the innovations which were to define the transition to the
Baroque period originated in northern Italy in the last few decades of the century. In Venice, the polychoral productions of the Venetian School, and associated instrumental music, moved north into Germany; in Florence, the Florentine Camerata developed monody, the important precursor to opera, which itself first appeared around 1600; and the avant-garde, manneristic style of the Ferrara school, which migrated to Naples and elsewhere through the music of Carlo Gesualdo, was to be the final statement of the polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance.
References
- Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.
- Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. S.G.C Middlemore [1]
- Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
- Capra, Fritjof. (2008), The Science of Leonardo. Inside the Mind of the Great Genius of the Renaissance. Doubleday ISBN 978-0-385-51390-6
- Cronin, Vincent
- The Florentine Renaissance (1967) ISBN 0-00-211262-0
- The Flowering of the Renaissance (1969) ISBN 0-7126-9884-1
- The Renaissance (1992) ISBN 0-00-215411-0
- Hagopian, Viola L. "Italy", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN
- Hay, Denys. The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
- Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe
- Jurdjevic, Mark. "Hedgehogs and Foxes: The Present and Future of Italian Renaissance Intellectual History," Past & Present 2007 (195): 241-268, Shows Humanism has been the main concern of historians recently; Discusses the works of William Bouwsma, James Hankins, Ronald Witt, Riccardo Fubini, Quentin Skinner, J. A. Pocock, and Eric Nelson.
- Lopez, Robert Sabatino, The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970.
- Pullan, Brian S. History of Early Renaissance Italy. London: Lane, 1973.
- Raffini, Christine, Marsilio Ficino, Pietro Bembo, Baldassare Castiglione: Philosophical, Aesthetic, and Political Approaches in Renaissance Platonism. Renaissance and Baroque Studies and Texts, v.21, Peter Lang Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-8204-3023-4
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Today's Snippet II: Roman Martyrology
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| Saint Jerome visited by angels by Cavarozz |
The Roman Martyrology is the official martyrology of the Roman Rite of the Roman Catholic Church. It provides an extensive but not exhaustive list of the saints recognized by the Church.[1]
The Roman Martyrology was first published in 1583 by Pope Gregory XIII, who in the year before had decreed the revision of the Julian calendar that is called, after him, the Gregorian calendar.
A second edition was published in the same year. The third edition, in
1584, was made obligatory wherever the Roman Rite was in use.
The main source was the Martyrology of Usuard, completed by the "Dialogues" of Pope Gregory I and the works of some of the Fathers, and for the Greek saints by the catalogue known as the Menologion of Sirlet. Its origins can be traced back to the Martyrologium Hieronymianum,
which was originally based on calendars of Roman, African and Syrian
provenance, but to which were gradually added names of many saints from
other areas, resulting in a number of duplications, fusions of different
saints into one, and other mistakes.
Very soon, in 1586 and again in 1589, revised editions were published with corrections by Caesar Baronius along with indications of the sources on which he drew, and in 1630 Pope Urban VIII issued a new edition.[2] 1748 saw the appearance of a revised edition by Pope Benedict XIV, who personally worked on the corrections: he suppressed some names, such as those of Clement of Alexandria and Sulpicius Severus, but kept others that had been objected to, such as that of Pope Siricius.
Subsequent changes until the edition of 2001 were minor, involving some
corrections, but mainly the addition of the names of newly canonized saints.
The Second Vatican Council decreed: "The accounts of martyrdom or the lives of the saints are to accord with the facts of history."[4]
This required years of study, after which a fully revised edition of
the Roman Martyrology was issued in 2001, followed in 2005 by a revision
that corrected some typographical errors in the 2001 edition and added
117 people canonized or beatified between 2001 and 2004, as well as many
more ancient saints not included in the previous edition. "The updated
Martyrology contains 7,000 saints and blesseds currently venerated by
the Church, and whose cult is officially recognized and proposed to the
faithful as models worthy of imitation."[5]
Martyrologium Hieronymianum
The Martyrologium Hieronymianum (meaning "martyrology
of Jerome") is list of Christian martyrs, one of the most used and
influential of the Middle Ages It is the oldest surviving general or
"universal" martyrology, and the ultimate source of all later Western
martyrologies. It was probably compiled in the late 6th century by monks
in Gaul from calendars or martyrologies originating in Rome, Africa, the Christian east and locally. The Martyrologium Hieronymianum
Pseudepigraphically attributed to Saint Jerome, the Martyrologium Hieronymianum contains a reference to him derived from the opening chapter of his Vita Malchi (392 AD) where Jerome states his intention to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the apostolic times:
"I decided to write [a history, mentioned earlier] from the coming of
the savior up to our age, that is, from the apostles, up to the dregs of
our time". Its alternate name, Martyrologium sancti Hieronomi, offers further misleading confidence to its authorship.
Hippolyte Delehaye was of the opinion that the first recension was compiled in northern Italy, probably within the patriarchate of Aquileia, in the 430s or 440s. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica
suggested that in its present form it goes back to the end of the 6th
century: "It is the result of the combination of a general martyrology
of the Eastern Churches, a local martyrology of the Church of Rome, some
general martyrologies of Italy and Africa, and a series of local
martyrologies of Gaul. The task of critics is to distinguish between its
various constituent elements." The sole surviving manuscript derives
from a lost recension apparently made in Gaul, probably at Auxerre, ca 600, with which the Dictionary of the Middle Ages concurs. The text shows signs of having been copied in Anglo-Saxon England by its inclusion of five Anglo-Saxon commemorations. The sole surviving copy (Epternacensis) is associated with the household of the Northumbrian Willibrord, at his foundation, Echternach; it is conserved at the Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, lat. 10837, folios 2 - 33.
In its present form the Martyrologium Hieronymianum is a 9th
century compilation from various calendars and lists of martyrs, amended
and interpolated, the names distorted and multiplied or moved from one
date to another according to local cultus.
Scholars generally assume that in the lists of martyrs that head each
day's entry, newer additions were added at the bottom of the lists, and
thus that the first names are most likely to be those from the lost
earliest versions of the Martyrologium Hieronymianum.
Some of the entries contain brief narratives about the saints which
are of historic interest, however the vast majority of entries are
nothing but lists of names and places, for example: "On the third day
before the Ides of January, at Rome, in the [catacomb] cemetery of Callixtus, on the Appian Way, buried Miltiades, the bishop". The first "historic" martyrologies (containing narrative history of the life of a saint) would not flower until the Carolingian period, starting with the martyrology of Bede.
Use of the Martyrology in the Roman Rite
As an official list of recognised saints and beati, inclusion in the Martyrologium Romanum authorises the recognition of saints in the following ways:
- On any weekday that admits celebration of the optional memorial of a saint, the Mass and the office may, if there is a good reason, be of any saint listed in the Martyrology for that day.[6]
- A church building may be dedicated to a saint, or a saint chosen as patron of a place.[7]
Such commemorations in honour of a person who has only been beatified
are only permitted in the diocese or religious order where the cult of
that person is authorised, unless special permission is obtained from
the Holy See.[8]
Reading or chanting of the Martyrology
The entry for each date in the Martyrology is to be read on the previous day.[9] Reading in choir is recommended, but the reading may also be done otherwise:[10] in seminaries and similar institutes it has been traditional to read it after the main meal of the day.
If the Martyrology is read outside of the Liturgy of the Hours, as
for instance in the refectory, the reading begins with the mention of
the date, followed, optionally, by mention of the phase of the moon.
Then the text of the Martyrology is read, ending with the versicle and
response "Pretiosa in conspectu Domini – Mors Sanctorum eius" (Precious
in the sight of the Lord – Is the death of his Saints). A short
Scripture reading may follow, which the reader concludes with "Verbum
Domini" (The word of the Lord), to which those present respond: "Deo
gratias" (Thanks be to God). This in turn is followed by a prayer, for
which texts are given in the Martyrology, and a blessing and dismissal.[11]
If the Martyrology is read within the Liturgy of the Hours (traditionally during the office of Prime, but since Vatican II, normally after the concluding prayer of Lauds), the same form is used, but without the optional Scripture reading.[12]
Reading of the Martyrology is completely omitted on Holy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday.[13]
Before the Second Vatican Council suppressed the Hour of Prime
in 1963, the Martyrology was read at that canonical hour. It is still
read at that hour by those who use the 1962 liturgical books, permitted
by Summorum Pontificum.
Special Proclamations
On certain dates of the liturgical year, the Martyrology prescribes special announcements to be made before or after the commemoration of saints:[14]
- On Christmas Eve, a long proclamation of the birth of Christ follows the list of saints for December 25th.
- On Easter Sunday, the Martyrology not having been read during the three previous days of the Paschal Triduum, a proclamation of the Resurrection of Christ precedes the day's saints.
References
- ^ Martyrologium Romanum, Praenotanda, 27–29
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, article Martyrology
- ^ Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Decree Victoriam paschalem, 29 June 2001
- ^ Sacrosanctum Concilium, 92 c
- ^ Adoremus Bulletin, February 2005
- ^ Martyrologium Romanum, Praenotanda, 26, 30; cf. General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 316; General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 244.
- ^ Praenotanda, 34
- ^ Praenotanda, 31, 34
- ^ Praenotanda, 35
- ^ Praenotanda, 36
- ^ Martyrologium Romanum, Ordo Lectionis Martyrologii, 13–16
- ^ Ordo Lectionis Martyrologii, 1–6
- ^ Ordo Lectionis Martyrologii, 8
- ^ Ordo Lectionis Martyrologii, 7 & 9
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Catechism of the Catholic Church
Part One: Profession of Faith, Sect 2 The Creeds, Ch 2 Art 4:1
CHAPTER TWO
I BELIEVE IN JESUS CHRIST, THE ONLY SON OF
GOD
Article 4
Article 4
Paragraph 1. JESUS AND ISRAEL
574
From the beginning of Jesus' public ministry, certain Pharisees and partisans
of Herod together with priests and scribes agreed together to destroy
him. Mk 3:6; 14:1 Because of certain acts of his expelling demons, forgiving
sins, healing on the sabbath day, his novel interpretation of the precepts of
the Law regarding purity, and his familiarity with tax collectors and public
sinnersMt 12:24;
⇒ Mk 2:7,
⇒ 14-17;
⇒ 3:1-6;
⇒ 7:14-23--some ill-intentioned persons suspected Jesus of demonic
possession.Mk 3:22;
⇒ Jn 8:48; 10:20 He is accused of blasphemy and false prophecy, religious
crimes which the Law punished with death by stoning.Mk 2:7;
⇒ Jn 5:18;
⇒ 7:12, ⇒ 52;
⇒ 8:59;
⇒ 10:31,
⇒ 33
575
Many
of Jesus' deeds and words constituted a "sign of
contradiction",Lk 2:34 but more so for the religious authorities in
Jerusalem, whom the Gospel according to John often calls simply "the
Jews",Jn 1:19 than for the ordinary People of God.Jn 7:48-49 To be
sure, Christ's relations with the Pharisees were not exclusively polemical.
Some Pharisees warn him of the danger he was courting;Lk 13:31 Jesus praises
some of them, like the scribe of Mark 12:34, and dines several times at their
homes.Lk 7:36 Jesus endorses some of the teachings imparted by this
religious elite of God's people: the resurrection of the dead,Mt 22:23-34;
⇒ Lk 20:39
certain forms of piety (almsgiving, fasting and prayer),Mt 6:18 The custom
of addressing God as Father, and the centrality of the commandment to love God
and neighbour.Mk 12:28-34
576
In the eyes of many in Israel, Jesus seems to be acting against essential
institutions of the Chosen People: - submission to the whole of the Law in its
written commandments and, for the Pharisees, in the interpretation of oral
tradition; - the centrality of the Temple at Jerusalem as the holy place where
God's presence dwells in a special way; - faith in the one God whose glory no
man can share.
I. JESUS
AND THE LAW
577
At the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount Jesus issued a solemn warning in
which he presented God's law, given on Sinai during the first covenant, in
light of the grace of the New Covenant: Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets: I have
come not to abolish but to fulfil. For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth
pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law,
until all is accomplished. Therefore, whoever breaks one of the least of these
commandments, and teaches others to do the same, will be called least in the
kingdom of heaven; but whoever does them and teaches them will be called great
in the kingdom of heaven.Mt
5:17-19
578
Jesus, Israel's Messiah and therefore the greatest in the kingdom of heaven,
was to fulfil the Law by keeping it in its all embracing detail - according to
his own words, down to "the least of these commandments".Mt 5:19
He is in fact the only one who could keep it perfectly.Jn 8:46 On their own
admission the Jews were never able to observe the Law in its entirety without
violating the least of its precepts.Jn
7:19 This is why every year on the
Day of Atonement the children of Israel ask God's forgiveness for their
transgressions of the Law. the Law indeed makes up one inseparable whole, and
St. James recalls, "Whoever keeps the whole law but fails in one point has
become guilty of all of it."Jas 2:10
579
This
principle of integral observance of the Law not only in letter but in spirit
was dear to the Pharisees. By giving Israel this principle they had led many
Jews of Jesus' time to an extreme religious zeal.Rom 10:2 This zeal, were it
not to lapse into "hypocritical" casuistry,Mt 15:31 could only
prepare the People for the unprecedented intervention of God through the
perfect fulfilment of the Law by the only Righteous One in place of all sinners.Is 53:11
580
The perfect fulfilment of the Law could be the work of none but the divine
legislator, born subject to the Law in the person of the Son.Gal 4:4. In
Jesus, the Law no longer appears engraved on tables of stone but "upon the
heart" of the Servant who becomes "a covenant to the people",
because he will "faithfully bring forth justice".Gal 4:4. Jesus
fulfils the Law to the point of taking upon himself "the curse of the
Law" incurred by those who do not "abide by the things written in the
book of the Law, and do them", for his death took place to redeem them
"from the transgressions under the first covenant".Gal 3:13
581
The
Jewish people and their spiritual leaders viewed Jesus as a rabbi.Jn 11:28
He often argued within the framework of rabbinical interpretation of the
Law.Mt 12:5 Yet Jesus could not help but offend the teachers of the Law,
for he was not content to propose his interpretation alongside theirs but
taught the people "as one who had authority, and not as their
scribes".Mt 7:28-29 In Jesus, the same Word of God that had resounded on
Mount Sinai to give the written Law to Moses, made itself heard anew on the
Mount of the Beatitudes.Mt 5:1 Jesus did not abolish the Law but fulfilled
it by giving its ultimate interpretation in a divine way: "You have heard
that it was said to the men of old. . . But I say to you. . ."
With this same divine authority, he disavowed certain human traditions of the
Pharisees that were "making void the word of God".Mt 5:33-34
582
Going
even further, Jesus perfects the dietary law, so important in Jewish daily
life, by revealing its pedagogical meaning through a divine interpretation:
"Whatever goes into a man from outside cannot defile him. . . (Thus he
declared all foods clean.). . . What comes out of a man is what defiles a man.
For from within, out of the heart of man, come evil thoughts. .
."Mk 7:13 In presenting with divine authority the definitive interpretation
of the Law, Jesus found himself confronted by certain teachers of the Law who
did not accept his interpretation of the Law, guaranteed though it was by the
divine signs that accompanied it.Mk 7:18-21 This was the case especially with
the sabbath laws, for he recalls, often with rabbinical arguments, that the
sabbath rest is not violated by serving God and neighbour,Num 28 9 which his
own healings did.
II. JESUS
AND THE TEMPLE
583
Like the prophets before him Jesus expressed the deepest respect for the Temple
in Jerusalem. It was in the Temple that Joseph and Mary presented him forty
days after his birth. Lk 2:22-39 At the age of twelve he decided to remain in
the Temple to remind his parents that he must be about his Father's business.Lk 2 46-49
He went there each year during his hidden life at least for
Passover.Lk 2 41 His public ministry itself was patterned by his
pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the great Jewish feasts.Jn 2 13-14
584
Jesus went up to the Temple as the privileged place of encounter with God. For
him, the Temple was the dwelling of his Father, a house of prayer, and he was
angered that its outer court had become a place of commerce. Mt 21:13 He
drove merchants out of it because of jealous love for his Father: "You
shall not make my Father's house a house of trade. His disciples remembered
that it was written, 'Zeal for your house will consume me.'"Jn 2:16-17
After his Resurrection his apostles retained their reverence for the Temple.Acts 2:46
585
On the threshold of his Passion Jesus announced the coming destruction of this
splendid building, of which there would not remain "one stone upon
another".Mt 24:1-2 By doing so, he announced a sign of the last days,
which were to begin with his own Passover.Mt 24:3 But this prophecy would
be distorted in its telling by false witnesses during his interrogation at the
high priest's house, and would be thrown back at him as an insult when he was
nailed to the cross. Mk 14:57-58
586
Far from having been hostile to the Temple, where he gave the essential part of
his teaching, Jesus was willing to pay the Temple-tax, associating with him
Peter, whom he had just made the foundation of his future Church.Mt 8:4 He
even identified himself with the Temple by presenting himself as God's
definitive dwelling-place among men.Jn 2:21 Therefore his being put to
bodily deathJn 2:18-22 presaged the destruction of the Temple, which would
manifest the dawning of a new age in the history of salvation: "The hour
is coming when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the
Father."Jn 4:21
III. JESUS
AND ISRAEL'S FAITH IN THE ONE GOD AND SAVIOUR
587
If the Law and the Jerusalem Temple could be occasions of opposition to Jesus
by Israel's religious authorities, his role in the redemption of sins, the
divine work par excellence, was the true stumbling-block for them. Lk 2:34
588
Jesus scandalized the Pharisees by eating with tax collectors and sinners as
familiarly as with themselves.Lk 5:30 Against those among them "who
trusted in themselves that they were righteous and despised others", Jesus
affirmed: "I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to
repentance." Lk 18:9 He went further by proclaiming before the
Pharisees that, since sin is universal, those who pretend not to need salvation
are blind to themselves.Jn 8:33-36
589
Jesus gave scandal above all when he identified his merciful conduct toward
sinners with God's own attitude toward them. Mt 9:13 He went so far as to
hint that by sharing the table of sinners he was admitting them to the
messianic banquet.Lk 15:1-2 But it was most especially by forgiving sins that
Jesus placed the religious authorities of Israel on the horns of a dilemma.
Were they not entitled to demand in consternation, "Who can forgive sins
but God alone?"Mk 2:7 By forgiving sins Jesus either is blaspheming
as a man who made himself God's equal, or is speaking the truth and his person
really does make present and reveal God's name.Jn 5:18
590
Only the divine identity of Jesus' person can justify so absolute a claim as
"He who is not with me is against me"; and his saying that there was
in him "something greater than Jonah,. . . greater than Solomon",
something "greater than the Temple"; his reminder that David had
called the Messiah his Lord,Mt 12:6 and his affirmations, "Before
Abraham was, I AM", and even "I and the Father are one."Jn 8:58
591
Jesus asked the religious authorities of Jerusalem to believe in him because of
the Father's works which he accomplished.Jn 10:36-38 But such an act of faith
must go through a mysterious death to self, for a new "birth from above"
under the influence of divine grace.Jn 3:7 Such a demand for conversion in
the face of so surprising a fulfilment of the promisesIs 53:1 allows one to
understand the Sanhedrin's tragic misunderstanding of Jesus: they judged that
he deserved the death sentence as a blasphemer.Mk 3:6 The members of the
Sanhedrin were thus acting at the same time out of "ignorance" and
the "hardness" of their "unbelief".
IN BRIEF
592 Jesus did not abolish the
Law of Sinai, but rather fulfilled it (cf ⇒ Mt
5:17-19) with such perfection (cf ⇒ Jn
8:46) that he revealed its ultimate meaning (cf
⇒ Mt 5:33) and redeemed the transgressions
against it (cf ⇒ Heb 9:15).
593 Jesus venerated the
Temple by going up to it for the Jewish feasts of pilgrimage, and with a
jealous love he loved this dwelling of God among men. the Temple prefigures his
own mystery. When he announces its destruction, it is as a manifestation of his
own execution and of the entry into a new age in the history of salvation, when
his Body would be the definitive Temple.
594 Jesus performed acts,
such as pardoning sins, that manifested him to be the Saviour God himself (cf
⇒ Jn 5:16-18). Certain Jews, who did not
recognize God made man (cf ⇒ Jn 1:14), saw in
him only a man who made himself God (⇒ Jn
10:33), and judged him as a blasphemer.
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